In Italy, landslides and floods are widespread, recurring and dangerous phenomena. For over twenty years, the Istituto di Ricerca per la Protezione Idrogeologica of the CNR has been collecting, organizing and analyzing information on the impact that landslide and flood events have on the population. With regard to the period between 1 January 2014 and 31 December 2018, (i) the list of all the places where people lost their lives or were injured as a result of a landslide or a flood was collected; (ii) the map of their geographical distribution; (iii) some statistics on landslide and flood events with victims; (iv) the analysis on a regional scale of the number of deaths and missing persons. This information was collected through the analysis of historical sources, archival and time-keeping data, was then organized in a digital archive and published in the Report on the Rapporto sul Rischio posto alla Popolazione italiana da Frane e Inondazioni. Considering the historical series 2000-2018, a total of 438 people lost their lives, 23 on an annual average. The sad record of the victims is in 2000 (54 dead and 7 missing), followed by 2009 (50 dead and 6 missing), 2011 (44 deaths). In 2018 alone, landslides and floods caused 38 deaths in Italy, 2 missing, 38 injured and over 4,500 displaced and homeless in 134 municipalities, distributed in 19 regions. The most severely injured regions are those in the south. In particular, Sicily and Calabria were those with the highest number of victims. Among the 38 victims, 26 were recorded on the occasion of floods alone. Among the main flood events recorded in 2018, the flood at the Gole del Raganello (CS), in the Pollino National Park, which caused the loss of 10 lives and injured 11 people and the flooding of the Agrigento and Palermo basins central-western region which caused the death of 9 people at Casteldaccia (PA). The Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL has systematically collected all data and information on damage caused by bad weather since 1972. The database, created with the decisive support of the Federal Office of the Environment UFAM, contains information on the damage caused by floods, debris flows, slips and, since 2002, also by falls of rocks and landslides. According to this research institute, in 2018 floods, slips and debris flows caused damage in Switzerland of about 200 million francs. Number that is below the average of 306 million francs for the period between 1972 and 2017. Between 1946 and 2018 floods claimed a total of 123 lives, debris flows claimed 22, landslides claimed 54 and fall processes claimed 93. Since 1946 an average of 2.7 fatalities were recorded annually as a result of floods, debris flows and landslides and 1.3 were recorded to fall processes. Floods, debris flows, landslides and fall processes can cause significant damage. The extent of the damage is influenced by the use of built-up area and the intensity and spatial extent of the natural hazard events. Hence it also depends on the measures taken to protect human life, the environment and material assets. The amount of losses associated with such events is an indicator of, first, the success of the preventive measures implemented to protect against natural hazards and, second, the vulnerability of buildings and infrastructure. Between 1972 and 2018, floods and debris flows caused damage to the tune of CHF 13 billion. The damage caused by landslides and fall processes totalled at one billion. Hence, the total cost of damage arising from these natural events was CHF 14; this corresponds to an average annual cost of around CHF 305 million. The Municipality of Livigno is located on the northern slope of the Alpi Retiche, within the hydrographic catchment area of the Inn. The municipal territory borders with the Swiss Confederation (Cantone dei Grigioni) for most of its administrative limits, with the exception of the eastern side where it borders the Municipality of Valdidentro (SO). The northern part of the valley is occupied by the artificial reservoir of lake of Livigno, blocked by the dam located at the extreme north of the Municipality. The left bank of the lake is crossed by the road that connects Livigno with the lower Engadina and with the service tunnel of the dam. The areas of the slopes facing lake of Livigno and the neighbouring valleys are characterized by vast areas of instability, due to the collapses of the crests of carbonate rock. Near the shores of the lake, especially in its central part, there are also widespread phenomena of torrential transport on a fan, sometimes associated with phenomena of rapid collation. The debris flows manifested from 2016 to 2018 have seriously endangered the health of the rockfall and avalanche galleries along the Livigno-Zernez transnational road. The greatest damage was recorded in conjunction with the flow that occurred on 1 August 2018 on the last defensive work along the Livigno-Zernez transnational road before the Mut la Schera tunnel. The research work presented within this thesis places itself at the border of the two contexts described above. In the first part of the paper the area of the current work is described, firstly characterizing the landslides that occurred and then defining the geology and morphology of the debris deposits present on site, with reference to the infrastructures affected by the detrital events from the 2016 to 2018. The search for the correct definition of the term landslide and the efforts in the ambitious attempt to characterize the various landslides, has led numerous Authors to draw up as many more or less structured cataloguing. The underlining of one attribute rather than another inevitably leads to the proposal of different classifications over time. Therefore, within the literature, certain systems are complementary, while others, in part, report incongruent terminologies and ambiguous definitions of the various types of landslides. The articulated and heterogeneous technical terminology present today (2019) in literature is even more extensive in the case of debris flows. In fact, English-speaking terms such as debris slides, debris torrents, debris floods, mudflows, flash floods have often been combined with this last term. To avoid introducing an incorrect translation of the technical terms encountered in the research articles in English, in the chapter dedicated to the state of the art, the author's original thought and terminology was preferred on many occasions. The characterization of on-site landslide phenomena was preceded by the study of transport and deposition mechanisms, the analysis of the conditions of initiation and arrest and the evaluation of the main aspects relating to the dynamics of debris flows. Particular attention has been paid to channelled debris events, which can occur within a drainage channel or in a pre-existing gully. The presence of deep furrows along the slopes is important because they are able to convey the surface water flows that can be incorporated into the clasts constituting the debris flows, help to maintain a high magnitude and allow a rapid accumulation of debris. The physical-rheological properties of the debris flows are closely related to the relative solid and liquid content; their peculiarity coincides with the ability to flow also following a low increase in the liquid content. The geomaterials that make up the debris flow typically fall within a broad granulometric spectrum: the granulometry of a debris flow can vary considerably from the triggering areas to the deposit zones. The flow can in fact incorporate eroded material and the collision between the coarse particles can cause their fragmentation during transport. In the second section of the chapter dedicated to framing the investigated area, the geological and geomorphological context of the site within which a series of debris events took place from 2016 to 2018 was defined globally based on the consultation of the archived data, with reference to several inspections and surveys and, finally, following comparisons with experts involved during the phase of restoration of the viability of the transnational road Livigno-Zernez. The geotechnical characterization of the site, and in particular the determination of the granulometric curves, was carried out on the basis of the study of the samples collected on site by means of boreholes in the corers after the debris events that took place in August 2018. Inside the third section of the second chapter the rockfall and avalanche galleries along the transnational road Livigno-Zernez are located, described in their main aspects and characterized by an in-depth photographic survey. For convenience the four tunnels have been identified with a progressive numbering from 1 to 4. Gallery 1 refers to the first tunnel encountered traveling in the Zernez direction, gallery 4 consequently represents the last tunnel before the Munt La Schera Tunnel. The fourth section of the second chapter describes the problems associated with the debris flows on the west side of lake of Livigno since 2016. Finally, in the final part of the first part of the thesis, the flow channel activated during the debris flows occurred is detailed. in 2018 near the kilometre 1.6 of the gallery 2. Within the final section, the papers related to the preliminary investigation phase are also presented, which allowed to establish the geometry of the numerical model of debris flow. The second part of the paper describes the numerical approach used to study the dynamics of arrest and the impact of the debris flow which is the subject of the thesis. The concept of the geotechnical modeling is briefly set out in the third chapter, the first one of this second part. After a brief description of the main numerical methods used for large deformation analyzes, the principles and the mathematical structure of the Material Point Method are exposed. It is therefore presented as a hybrid numerical method that is well suited to describing problems such as the propagation of a debris flow. This numerical method allows to obviate the numerical drawbacks found in the case of large deformations and to simulate the problems of soil-water-structure interaction for materials having a constitutive bond function of the previous stress-deformation history. This is possible since this numerical method works on the basis of the constant tracking of the MPs, to which the variables independent of the previous deformation history are assigned such as plastic deformations and work hardening parameters. Since each particle represents a portion of the total mass, a part of the volume and state variables are associated with them, depending on the type of application to which reference is made. In this way the particles form a Lagrangian structure from which it is possible to determine the discrete continuous state at any time instant. In the fourth chapter the numerical model of debris flow and the retrospective analysis that allowed the definition and calibration of the constituent parameters is presented. The geometric and mechanical idealization of the problem is at the base of all the numerical simulations realized through Anura3D, software currently under development that represents an improved version of the original Material Point Method. The numerical simulations focused on the final phase of the debris body propagation until its arrest. This choice is dictated by the little information available about the morphology of the drainage basin and the main flow channel, the impossibility of having data concerning the alluvial deposits present within the secondary branches, the tributaries of the main channel and the excessive computational burden that would have required the description of the triggering process in the case of a real-scale problem. The choice to carry out a series of numerical simulations within a specific time window allowed us to establish different simplifying hypotheses within the casting model: the presence of a rigid, non-deformable and non-erodible background, the completed aggradation process, the material detritic collapse and in critical conditions and the casting in phase of arrest. Among the constitutive models implemented, the two-dimensional model of debris flow type Mohr-Coulomb allowed to reproduce in an optimal manner the runout distance and the thickness of the deposit at the extrados of the parietal tunnel. The debris flow models of Frictional Liquid type and Bingham have instead required much more in-depth retrospective analyzes since the relative scenarios have often been subjected to numerical instability. Regardless of the constitutive parameters implemented, a rapid deviation from the initial imposed conditions was observed for these latter numerical analyzes: high values of dynamic viscosity, necessary to guarantee numerical stability, led to the cancellation of the speed gradient imposed inside the detrital body. Within the third part of the paper, coinciding with the fifth and last chapter of the thesis, two possible design solutions have been described that would have allowed to reduce the degree of risk associated with the debris flow manifestation that occurred in 2018 near the kilometre 1.6 of the tunnel 2. Among the possible defence structures that could be defined within the casting model, the design of an embankment and an embankment with a rear wall was studied. The barrier, if bound to the base, has allowed to stop the debris volume that otherwise would have been deposited on the extrados of the wall gallery and on the horizontal plateau on the side of the external facing the lake of Livigno. For each type of defence work the upstream pressures in time instants and for different continuous equivalents have been studied.
In Italia, le frane e le inondazioni sono fenomeni diffusi, ricorrenti e pericolosi. Da oltre vent'anni, l'Istituto di Ricerca per la Protezione Idrogeologica del CNR raccoglie, organizza e analizza informazioni sull'impatto che gli eventi di frana e d'inondazione hanno sulla popolazione. Relativamente al periodo compreso tra il 1° gennaio 2014 e il 31 dicembre 2018, sono stati raccolti (i) l'elenco di tutte le località dove le persone hanno perso la vita o sono rimaste ferite in seguito ad una frana o a una inondazione; (ii) la mappa della loro distribuzione geografica; (iii) alcune statistiche sugli eventi di frana e d'inondazione con vittime; (iv) l'analisi a scala regionale del numero di morti e dispersi. Tali informazioni sono state raccolte attraverso l'analisi di fonti storiche, dati d'archivio e cronachistiche, sono state poi organizzate in un archivio digitale e pubblicate nel Rapporto sul Rischio posto alla Popolazione italiana da Frane e Inondazioni. Considerando la serie storica 2000-2018 hanno perso la vita in totale 438 persone, 23 di media annua. Il triste primato delle vittime è del 2000 (54 morti e 7 dispersi), seguono il 2009 (50 morti e 6 dispersi), il 2011 (44 morti). Nel solo 2018, frane e inondazioni hanno causato in Italia 38 morti, 2 dispersi, 38 feriti e oltre 4.500 tra sfollati e senzatetto in 134 comuni, distribuiti in 19 regioni. Le regioni più duramente ferite sono quelle del sud. In particolare, Sicilia e Calabria sono state quelle con il più alto numero di vittime. Tra le 38 vittime, 26 sono state registrate in occasione dei soli fenomeni alluvionali. Tra i principali eventi alluvionali registrati nel 2018 si ricordano la piena alle Gole del Raganello (CS), nel Parco nazionale del Pollino, che causò la perdita di 10 vite e il ferimento di 11 persone e la piena dei bacini dell'agrigentino e del palermitano centro-occidentale che causò la morte di 9 persone presso Casteldaccia (PA). L'istituto di ricerca federale svizzero WSL raccoglie sistematicamente dal 1972 tutti i dati e le informazioni sui danni causati dal maltempo. La banca dati, creata con il determinante sostegno dell'Ufficio federale dell’ambiente UFAM, contiene informazioni sui danni provocati da inondazioni, colate detritiche, slittamenti e, dal 2002, anche da cadute di massi e frane. Secondo tale istituto di ricerca, nel 2018 inondazioni, slittamenti e colate detritiche hanno provocato in Svizzera danni per circa 200 milioni di franchi. Numero che si pone al di sotto della media di 306 milioni di franchi per il periodo compreso tra il 1972 e il 2017. Nel periodo compreso fra il 1946 e il 2018 le piene hanno provocato complessivamente 123 vittime, le colate detritiche 22, gli scivolamenti 54 e i processi di crollo 93. In media, dal 1946 si contano ogni anno 2,7 vittime in seguito a piene, colate detritiche e scivolamenti e 1.3 vittime in seguito ai processi di crollo. Le piene, le colate detritiche, gli scivolamenti e i processi di crollo possono causare gravi danni. L'entità dei danni è influenzata dall'utilizzo delle zone d'insediamento, dall'intensità e dall'estensione spaziale dell'evento naturale. Di conseguenza dipende anche dalle misure adottate per proteggere beni, persone e ambiente. L'importo dei danni in caso di evento è un indicatore dell'efficacia delle misure preventive di protezione contro gli eventi naturali e della vulnerabilità delle opere e delle infrastrutture. Fra il 1972 e il 2018 le piene e le colate detritiche hanno causato danni per un importo pari a 13 miliardi di franchi. I danni da scivolamenti e processi di crollo ammontavano invece a un miliardo di franchi. I danni complessivi sono quindi stati pari a 14 miliardi di franchi, con un danno medio annuo di circa 305 milioni di franchi. Il Comune di Livigno è ubicato sul versante settentrionale delle Alpi Retiche, all'interno del bacino idrografico dell'Inn. Il territorio comunale confina con la Confederazione Elvetica (Cantone dei Grigioni) per buona parte dei suoi limiti amministrativi, a eccezione del lato orientale dove confina con il Comune di Valdidentro (SO). La parte settentrionale della valle è occupata dall'invaso artificiale del Lago di Livigno, sbarrato dalla diga situata all’estremo nord del Comune. La sponda sinistra del lago è percorsa dalla strada che collega Livigno con la bassa Engadina e con la galleria di servizio della diga. Le zone dei versanti prospicienti al Lago di Livigno e delle vallette limitrofe sono caratterizzate da vaste aree d’instabilità, dovute a crolli delle creste scoscese di roccia carbonatica. In prossimità delle sponde del lago, soprattutto nella sua parte centrale, sono altresì diffusi i fenomeni di trasporto torrentizio su conoide, associati talora a fenomeni di rapido colamento. Le colate detritiche, o debris flows, manifestatesi dal 2016 al 2018 hanno messo in serio pericolo la salute delle gallerie paramassi e paravalanghe presenti lungo la strada transnazionale Livigno-Zernez. I danni maggiori si sono registrati in concomitanza dalla colata verificatasi il 1° agosto 2018 sull'ultima opera di difesa presente lungo la strada transnazionale Livigno-Zernez prima del Tunnel Mut la Schera. Il lavoro di ricerca presentato all'interno di questa tesi si pone a confine dei due contesti sopra descritti. Nella prima parte dell'elaborato viene inquadrata l'area di studio presa in esame, caratterizzando in primo luogo i fenomeni franosi avvenuti e definendo in seguito la geologia e la morfologia dei depositi detritici presenti in sito, con riferimento alle infrastrutture colpite dagli eventi detritici dal 2016 al 2018. La ricerca della corretta definizione del termine frana e gli sforzi protratti nell'ambizioso tentativo di caratterizzare i vari fenomeni franosi, ha condotto numerosi Autori a stilare altrettante catalogazioni più o meno strutturate. La sottolineatura di un attributo anziché un altro, porta inevitabilmente nel tempo alla proposta di diverse classificazioni. Dunque, nell'ambito della letteratura scientifica, certi sistemi si presentano complementari mentre altri, in parte, riportano terminologie incongruenti e definizioni ambigue delle varie tipologie di frana. L'articolata ed eterogenea terminologia tecnica presente oggi (2019) in letteratura si presenta ancora più vasta nel caso delle colate detritiche. A quest'ultima voce infatti sono stati spesso accostati termini di derivazione anglofona quali debris slides, debris torrents, debris floods, mudflows, flash floods, hyperconcentrated flows e lahars. Per evitare d'introdurre una traduzione errata dei termini tecnici incontrati negli articoli di ricerca in lingua inglese, all'interno dei capitoli dedicati allo stato dell'arte si è preferito riportare in molte occasioni il pensiero e la terminologia originale dell'Autore. La caratterizzazione dei fenomeni franosi avvenuti in sito è stata preceduta dallo studio dei meccanismi di trasporto e deposizione, dall'analisi delle condizioni d'innesco e arresto e dalla valutazione dei principali aspetti relativi alla dinamica delle colate detritiche. Particolare attenzione è stata posta agli eventi detritici canalizzati, i quali possono manifestarsi all'interno di un canale di drenaggio o in un calanco preesistente. La presenza di profondi solchi lungo i versanti è importante perché in grado di veicolare i flussi d'acqua superficiali che possono essere incorporati nei clasti costituenti le colate detritiche, aiutano a mantenere una elevata magnitudo e permettono un rapido accumulo di materiale detritico. Le proprietà fisico-reologiche dei flussi detritici sono in stretta relazione con il relativo contenuto solido e liquido; la loro peculiarità coincide con la capacità di fluire in seguito anche a un basso aumento del contenuto liquido. I geomateriali che compongono il flusso detritico rientrano tipicamente in un ampio spettro granulometrico: la granulometria di una colata detritica può variare notevolmente dalle zone d'innesco a quelle di deposito. Nel secondo capitolo della parte dedicata all'inquadramento dell'area investigata è stato definito il contesto geologico e geomorfologico del sito dove sono stati registrati gli eventi detritici dal 2016 al 2018 sulla base della consultazione dei dati in archivio, in seguito a diversi sopralluoghi e rilevi fotografici e sulla base di alcuni confronti avuti con esperti coinvolti durante la fase di ripristino della viabilità della strada transnazionale Livigno-Zernez. La caratterizzazione geotecnica del sito, e in particolare la determinazione delle curve granulometriche, è stata realizzata sulla base dello studio dei campioni raccolti tramite perforazioni di sondaggio dopo gli eventi di colata avvenuti nell'agosto del 2018. All'interno della terza sezione del secondo capitolo vengono localizzate e descritte tramite un rilievo fotografico le gallerie paramassi presenti lungo la strada transnazionale Livigno-Zernez. Per comodità le quattro gallerie sono state identificate con una numerazione progressiva da 1 a 4. La galleria 1 si riferisce alla prima galleria incontrata viaggiando in direzione Zernez, la galleria 4 rappresenta di conseguenza l'ultima galleria prima del Tunnel Munt La Schera. Nella quarta sezione vengono descritte le problematiche associate alle colate detritiche manifestatesi sul versante ovest del Lago di Livigno dal 2016. Infine, nella parte finale della prima parte dell'elaborato viene caratterizzato il canale di scorrimento attivato in occasione della colata detritica verificatasi nel 2018 in prossimità del chilometro 1.6 della galleria 2. All'interno della sezione conclusiva vengono presentati gli elaborati relativi alla fase preliminare d'indagine. Quest'ultima ha permesso di stabilire la geometria del modello numerico di colata detritica. Nella seconda parte dell'elaborato viene descritto l'approccio numerico utilizzato per lo studio della dinamica di arresto e dell'impatto della colata detritica oggetto della tesi. All'interno del terzo capitolo, il primo di questa seconda parte, viene brevemente esposto il concetto di modellazione nell'ambito dei problemi geotecnici. Dopo la descrizione dei principali metodi numerici impiegati per le large deformation analyses, vengono esposti i principi fondamentali e la struttura matematica del Material Point Method. Tale metodo numerico permette di ovviare agli inconvenienti numerici riscontrabili nel caso di grandi deformazioni e di simulare i problemi d'interazione suolo-acqua-struttura per materiali aventi un legame costitutivo funzione della storia tensio-deformativa pregressa. Questo è possibile dal momento che tale metodo funziona sulla base del tracciamento costante degli MPs ai quali vengono assegnate le variabili indipendenti dalla storia deformativa pregressa, o history dependent variables, come le deformazioni plastiche e i parametri di incrudimento. Siccome ciascuna particella rappresenta una porzione della massa totale a esse vengono associate una parte del volume e delle variabili di stato a seconda della tipologia di applicazione a cui si fa riferimento. In questo modo le particelle formano una struttura lagrangiana dalla quale è possibile determinare lo stato del continuo discretizzato in qualsiasi istante temporale. Nel quarto capitolo viene presentato il modello numerico di colata detritica e le analisi retrospettive che hanno permesso la definizione dei parametri costitutivi. L'idealizzazione geometrica e meccanica del problema si pone alla base di tutte le simulazioni numeriche realizzate tramite Anura3D. Queste ultime sono state incentrate sulla fase finale della propagazione del corpo detritico fino al suo arresto. Tale scelta è stata dettata dalle poche informazioni disponibili circa la morfologia del bacino di drenaggio e canale di scorrimento principale, dall'impossibilità di disporre di dati riguardanti i depositi alluvionali presenti all'interno dei rami secondari, immissari del canale principale e dall'eccessivo onere computazionale che avrebbe richiesto la descrizione del processo di innesco nel caso di un problema a scala reale. La scelta di realizzare una serie di simulazioni numeriche entro una specifica finestra temporale ha permesso di stabilire diverse ipotesi semplificative all'interno del modello di colata: la presenza di un fondo rigido, non deformabile e non erodibile, il processo di aggradamento ultimato, il materiale detritico a collasso e in condizioni critiche e la colata in fase di arresto. Tra i modelli costitutivi implementati, il modello bidimensionale di colata detritica tipo Mohr-Coulomb ha permesso di riprodurre in maniera ottimale la distanza di run out e lo spessore del deposito all'estradosso della galleria parietale. I modelli di colata detritica tipo liquido frizionale e Bingham hanno invece richiesto delle analisi retrospettive molto più approfondite dal momento che i relativi scenari sono stati soggetti sovente a instabilità numerica. Indipendentemente dai parametri costitutivi implementati, per queste ultime analisi numeriche è stato osservato un discostamento rapido dalle condizioni iniziali imposte: alti valori di viscosità dinamica, necessari per garantire la stabilità numerica, hanno comportato l'annullamento del gradiente di velocità imposto all'interno del corpo detritico. All'interno della terza parte dell'elaborato, coincidente con il quinto e ultimo capitolo della tesi, sono state descritte due possibili soluzioni progettuali che avrebbero permesso di ridurre il grado di rischio associato alla manifestazione della colata detritica manifestatasi nel 2018 in prossimità del chilometro 1.6 della galleria 2. Tra i possibili manufatti di difesa che potevano essere definiti all'interno del modello di colata, è stata approfondita la progettazione di un rilevato e di un rilevato con un vallo a tergo. La barriera, se vincolata alla base, ha permesso di arrestare il volume detritico che altrimenti si sarebbe depositato sull'estradosso della galleria parietale e sul pianoro orizzontale presente a lato del paramento esterno prospiciente il lago di Livigno. Per ciascuna tipologia di opera di difesa sono state studiate le pressioni al paramento di monte in istanti temporali e per dei continui equivalenti differenti.
Material point method applicato a un debris flow. Simulazione di una colata detritica avvenuta il 1 agosto 2018 a Livigno e modellazione di possibili opere di difesa
MOTTINI, FRANCESCO GIUSEPPE
2018/2019
Abstract
In Italy, landslides and floods are widespread, recurring and dangerous phenomena. For over twenty years, the Istituto di Ricerca per la Protezione Idrogeologica of the CNR has been collecting, organizing and analyzing information on the impact that landslide and flood events have on the population. With regard to the period between 1 January 2014 and 31 December 2018, (i) the list of all the places where people lost their lives or were injured as a result of a landslide or a flood was collected; (ii) the map of their geographical distribution; (iii) some statistics on landslide and flood events with victims; (iv) the analysis on a regional scale of the number of deaths and missing persons. This information was collected through the analysis of historical sources, archival and time-keeping data, was then organized in a digital archive and published in the Report on the Rapporto sul Rischio posto alla Popolazione italiana da Frane e Inondazioni. Considering the historical series 2000-2018, a total of 438 people lost their lives, 23 on an annual average. The sad record of the victims is in 2000 (54 dead and 7 missing), followed by 2009 (50 dead and 6 missing), 2011 (44 deaths). In 2018 alone, landslides and floods caused 38 deaths in Italy, 2 missing, 38 injured and over 4,500 displaced and homeless in 134 municipalities, distributed in 19 regions. The most severely injured regions are those in the south. In particular, Sicily and Calabria were those with the highest number of victims. Among the 38 victims, 26 were recorded on the occasion of floods alone. Among the main flood events recorded in 2018, the flood at the Gole del Raganello (CS), in the Pollino National Park, which caused the loss of 10 lives and injured 11 people and the flooding of the Agrigento and Palermo basins central-western region which caused the death of 9 people at Casteldaccia (PA). The Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL has systematically collected all data and information on damage caused by bad weather since 1972. The database, created with the decisive support of the Federal Office of the Environment UFAM, contains information on the damage caused by floods, debris flows, slips and, since 2002, also by falls of rocks and landslides. According to this research institute, in 2018 floods, slips and debris flows caused damage in Switzerland of about 200 million francs. Number that is below the average of 306 million francs for the period between 1972 and 2017. Between 1946 and 2018 floods claimed a total of 123 lives, debris flows claimed 22, landslides claimed 54 and fall processes claimed 93. Since 1946 an average of 2.7 fatalities were recorded annually as a result of floods, debris flows and landslides and 1.3 were recorded to fall processes. Floods, debris flows, landslides and fall processes can cause significant damage. The extent of the damage is influenced by the use of built-up area and the intensity and spatial extent of the natural hazard events. Hence it also depends on the measures taken to protect human life, the environment and material assets. The amount of losses associated with such events is an indicator of, first, the success of the preventive measures implemented to protect against natural hazards and, second, the vulnerability of buildings and infrastructure. Between 1972 and 2018, floods and debris flows caused damage to the tune of CHF 13 billion. The damage caused by landslides and fall processes totalled at one billion. Hence, the total cost of damage arising from these natural events was CHF 14; this corresponds to an average annual cost of around CHF 305 million. The Municipality of Livigno is located on the northern slope of the Alpi Retiche, within the hydrographic catchment area of the Inn. The municipal territory borders with the Swiss Confederation (Cantone dei Grigioni) for most of its administrative limits, with the exception of the eastern side where it borders the Municipality of Valdidentro (SO). The northern part of the valley is occupied by the artificial reservoir of lake of Livigno, blocked by the dam located at the extreme north of the Municipality. The left bank of the lake is crossed by the road that connects Livigno with the lower Engadina and with the service tunnel of the dam. The areas of the slopes facing lake of Livigno and the neighbouring valleys are characterized by vast areas of instability, due to the collapses of the crests of carbonate rock. Near the shores of the lake, especially in its central part, there are also widespread phenomena of torrential transport on a fan, sometimes associated with phenomena of rapid collation. The debris flows manifested from 2016 to 2018 have seriously endangered the health of the rockfall and avalanche galleries along the Livigno-Zernez transnational road. The greatest damage was recorded in conjunction with the flow that occurred on 1 August 2018 on the last defensive work along the Livigno-Zernez transnational road before the Mut la Schera tunnel. The research work presented within this thesis places itself at the border of the two contexts described above. In the first part of the paper the area of the current work is described, firstly characterizing the landslides that occurred and then defining the geology and morphology of the debris deposits present on site, with reference to the infrastructures affected by the detrital events from the 2016 to 2018. The search for the correct definition of the term landslide and the efforts in the ambitious attempt to characterize the various landslides, has led numerous Authors to draw up as many more or less structured cataloguing. The underlining of one attribute rather than another inevitably leads to the proposal of different classifications over time. Therefore, within the literature, certain systems are complementary, while others, in part, report incongruent terminologies and ambiguous definitions of the various types of landslides. The articulated and heterogeneous technical terminology present today (2019) in literature is even more extensive in the case of debris flows. In fact, English-speaking terms such as debris slides, debris torrents, debris floods, mudflows, flash floods have often been combined with this last term. To avoid introducing an incorrect translation of the technical terms encountered in the research articles in English, in the chapter dedicated to the state of the art, the author's original thought and terminology was preferred on many occasions. The characterization of on-site landslide phenomena was preceded by the study of transport and deposition mechanisms, the analysis of the conditions of initiation and arrest and the evaluation of the main aspects relating to the dynamics of debris flows. Particular attention has been paid to channelled debris events, which can occur within a drainage channel or in a pre-existing gully. The presence of deep furrows along the slopes is important because they are able to convey the surface water flows that can be incorporated into the clasts constituting the debris flows, help to maintain a high magnitude and allow a rapid accumulation of debris. The physical-rheological properties of the debris flows are closely related to the relative solid and liquid content; their peculiarity coincides with the ability to flow also following a low increase in the liquid content. The geomaterials that make up the debris flow typically fall within a broad granulometric spectrum: the granulometry of a debris flow can vary considerably from the triggering areas to the deposit zones. The flow can in fact incorporate eroded material and the collision between the coarse particles can cause their fragmentation during transport. In the second section of the chapter dedicated to framing the investigated area, the geological and geomorphological context of the site within which a series of debris events took place from 2016 to 2018 was defined globally based on the consultation of the archived data, with reference to several inspections and surveys and, finally, following comparisons with experts involved during the phase of restoration of the viability of the transnational road Livigno-Zernez. The geotechnical characterization of the site, and in particular the determination of the granulometric curves, was carried out on the basis of the study of the samples collected on site by means of boreholes in the corers after the debris events that took place in August 2018. Inside the third section of the second chapter the rockfall and avalanche galleries along the transnational road Livigno-Zernez are located, described in their main aspects and characterized by an in-depth photographic survey. For convenience the four tunnels have been identified with a progressive numbering from 1 to 4. Gallery 1 refers to the first tunnel encountered traveling in the Zernez direction, gallery 4 consequently represents the last tunnel before the Munt La Schera Tunnel. The fourth section of the second chapter describes the problems associated with the debris flows on the west side of lake of Livigno since 2016. Finally, in the final part of the first part of the thesis, the flow channel activated during the debris flows occurred is detailed. in 2018 near the kilometre 1.6 of the gallery 2. Within the final section, the papers related to the preliminary investigation phase are also presented, which allowed to establish the geometry of the numerical model of debris flow. The second part of the paper describes the numerical approach used to study the dynamics of arrest and the impact of the debris flow which is the subject of the thesis. The concept of the geotechnical modeling is briefly set out in the third chapter, the first one of this second part. After a brief description of the main numerical methods used for large deformation analyzes, the principles and the mathematical structure of the Material Point Method are exposed. It is therefore presented as a hybrid numerical method that is well suited to describing problems such as the propagation of a debris flow. This numerical method allows to obviate the numerical drawbacks found in the case of large deformations and to simulate the problems of soil-water-structure interaction for materials having a constitutive bond function of the previous stress-deformation history. This is possible since this numerical method works on the basis of the constant tracking of the MPs, to which the variables independent of the previous deformation history are assigned such as plastic deformations and work hardening parameters. Since each particle represents a portion of the total mass, a part of the volume and state variables are associated with them, depending on the type of application to which reference is made. In this way the particles form a Lagrangian structure from which it is possible to determine the discrete continuous state at any time instant. In the fourth chapter the numerical model of debris flow and the retrospective analysis that allowed the definition and calibration of the constituent parameters is presented. The geometric and mechanical idealization of the problem is at the base of all the numerical simulations realized through Anura3D, software currently under development that represents an improved version of the original Material Point Method. The numerical simulations focused on the final phase of the debris body propagation until its arrest. This choice is dictated by the little information available about the morphology of the drainage basin and the main flow channel, the impossibility of having data concerning the alluvial deposits present within the secondary branches, the tributaries of the main channel and the excessive computational burden that would have required the description of the triggering process in the case of a real-scale problem. The choice to carry out a series of numerical simulations within a specific time window allowed us to establish different simplifying hypotheses within the casting model: the presence of a rigid, non-deformable and non-erodible background, the completed aggradation process, the material detritic collapse and in critical conditions and the casting in phase of arrest. Among the constitutive models implemented, the two-dimensional model of debris flow type Mohr-Coulomb allowed to reproduce in an optimal manner the runout distance and the thickness of the deposit at the extrados of the parietal tunnel. The debris flow models of Frictional Liquid type and Bingham have instead required much more in-depth retrospective analyzes since the relative scenarios have often been subjected to numerical instability. Regardless of the constitutive parameters implemented, a rapid deviation from the initial imposed conditions was observed for these latter numerical analyzes: high values of dynamic viscosity, necessary to guarantee numerical stability, led to the cancellation of the speed gradient imposed inside the detrital body. Within the third part of the paper, coinciding with the fifth and last chapter of the thesis, two possible design solutions have been described that would have allowed to reduce the degree of risk associated with the debris flow manifestation that occurred in 2018 near the kilometre 1.6 of the tunnel 2. Among the possible defence structures that could be defined within the casting model, the design of an embankment and an embankment with a rear wall was studied. The barrier, if bound to the base, has allowed to stop the debris volume that otherwise would have been deposited on the extrados of the wall gallery and on the horizontal plateau on the side of the external facing the lake of Livigno. For each type of defence work the upstream pressures in time instants and for different continuous equivalents have been studied.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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Descrizione: Material Point Method applicato a un Debris Flow
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/148750