This study, composed of three analytical chapters and a compendium, has the task of addressing the issue caused by globalization processes through three main points of view - economic, institutional and technological; historical, anthropological and social; spatial - intertwined at different scales. In particular, through a synthesis, we attempt to generate models, indicators, suggestions, principles, guidelines and recommendations that should allow to develop different planning approaches that will be able to focus and help the different actors involved in the development of the project in order to carry out and coordinate an integrated, participatory, sustainable and possibly ethnographically compatible planning. To this end it was therefore proposed to present a general view of the macro-systemic framework constituted by the concept of globalization, so as to frame how these dynamics are concretely translated from a territorial point of view and, vice versa, how the different contexts in turn characterize the networks which they are a part of. Cities and societies are experiencing an historical mutation of their structure that is increasingly organized around information. And contrary to the forecasts of technological determinists, urban centers tend to witness a progressive concentration of populations in large territorial clusters partially discontinuous under new socio-spatial dynamics. In an attempt to manage and organize the mass of seemingly disparate information presented by globalization processes, we therefore considered it useful to focus our analysis by summarizing these dynamics into three main themes: the articulation of the local and the global in the strategically new production processes dominant (advanced services and high-tech industry); the emergence of new spatial settlement schemes, both in developed and developing countries (mega-cities, models of "dispersed cities", new and old forms of urbanization); the definition of an urban quality based on the inter-metropolitan spatial polarization processes, in a new historical sense. In particular, this century is revealed through two groups of contradictory images: while on the one hand the powers of the national state seem at times to be very constrictive and visible, on the other they are increasingly often not very effective and relevant. And while Ralph Miliband (1969: 1) opened his work with the statement “More than ever before men in the shadow of the state”, a growing number of analysts suggest that the phenomena characterizing globalization tend to make the states less and less relevant, not only as economic actors but also as social and cultural containers. These problems therefore place us in front of the need to recognize three interconnected principles, namely that first of all the powers of the state do not have an institutional fixity neither on historical nor theoretical bases, secondly that the effects that the state produces are not obtained only through national institutions or in government courtrooms, and finally that both of these two characteristics, intrinsic to the capitalist state, have been and continue to be exacerbated by the phenomena of globalization. And it is precisely because of its identification with centrality that the state turns out to be the subject most in crisis when the processes of fragmentation tend to prevail, so much that, as mentioned above, we legitimately wonder whether we are faced with what is often called the "end" of the nation-state. At the same time, in the economic field we speak of an economy-archipelago (Veltz) to express a new geography of flows and integrations that cross all the borders. Just as the nation is now spoken of in terms of an archipelago (Predieri) of distinct and genetically differentiated entities, which replaced the old pyramid. And in the philosophical field it is expressed in terms of a European archipelago (Cacciari) to indicate the way to avoid both the hierarchically ordered space and individualism. Nowadays we therefore observe governments – or government agencies – that "suggest", through a multitude of more or less coercive and effective instruments, where the population should or should not be: borders, fronteers, through which they express themselves more or less clearly visible conflicts between the freedoms of individuals and the state powers of governments with territorial "rights". It is therefore automatic to introduce and analyze the concept of the periphery, which can only partially live autonomously, since it presupposes the reference to an other spatiality, "being something with respect to something else", and consequently the presence of at least one dichotomy that arises from the conceptual 'external-internal' couple. And in this regard, it therefore seemed to us fundamental to emphasize the spatial dimension evoked by the 'line', as the operation that involves drawing a sign that establishes two (at a minimum) poles having a specific relationship. Transformations are underway with particular violence, so it is necessary to make use of multiple and interdisciplinary tools, which are able to give reason, first of all, to the limited stereotypes and the sedimented conceptions that connect the periphery with the center (or with the centers), intended as a mentality that attributes qualities and labels. Report based on which it is possible to detect and define the differences between periphery and periphery in a contemporary context in which a particular process of integration and fragmentation is at work which in a certain sense relativizes, and at the same time increases, inequalities, wealth and poverty. In the face of the loss of weight of the old specificities, the new differences that erode the intermediate dimensions and create the conditions for the neatness of the lines of demarcation, which are however far from disappearing, are of value. And in the controversy, is certainly and increasingly evident the influence of 'relationships' which determine with new arrogance the limits and destiny of places and social conditions no longer decided by only the origin and the belonging, conceived as merely a spatial location. In particular we are faced with new forms of 'enclosure', which current societies produce in the direction of an ever greater collective polarization and which neoliberal policies exacerbate by drawing closed transnational spaces that attribute rights to businesses and markets, relentlessly sealing themselves to those who are not part of the game. A creation of 'internal externalities' by the metropolis of the nodes and flows where rich and poor live more and more frequently separated in a sort of economic apartheid, in which immigration and gentrification constitute only a part of this rapidly changing framework, which makes also the processes of informalization of space and the planetary reproduction of slums. A considerable part of the current changes and conflicts therefore passes through a "contention for space" that has no precedent in terms of scope and size, a phenomenon in which the theory seems to be largely late. In the last three decades, the important transformations and caesuras that occurred, which could be summarized as "globalization", led to the failure and dissolution of many theoretical perspectives. We are witnessing a process of consolidation of a model of unequal concentration of the population and resources that brings into play the emergence of growing imbalances between the territories: two opposing tendencies that on the one hand insist on the growth of opportunities for the South of the world just because the breaking of old economic and geopolitical balances opens up to greater possibilities than in the past, on the other hand processes of mass impoverishment and aggravation of income differences reveal a disintegration of weak economies and the social and material exclusion of a growing number of people. It was the 1980s that made the incompatibility between a set of conceptions of the city and spatial relationships as traditionally studied and the changed modes of accumulation on a planetary scale explicit. And the reflection of Erwin Gutkind on how cities are sensitive "seismographs" that welcome and signal the impact caused by the changes underway, invites us to see and analyze how contemporary cities have taken on a new relevance: a new role favored by processes of digitization and computerization that have contributed to the "death of distances" and created the conditions for the decline of ancient centralities, in a fluidification of geo-political boundaries and barriers that has allowed the appearance of "global cities" more and more autonomous from the regions and the same nations in which they are located. There are therefore places in which the reins that guide the economy are held, acquiring decisive functions of financial management oriented to the creation of "transnational market spaces" increasingly connected to one another: "transnational networks" with global reach. A great variety of spatial models. And if the themes of complexity and the metaphor of the labyrinth describe our society, the best contribution to the organization's science came from the network model type, able to give an account of the plurality of social circles to which one belongs and at the same time, capable of showing the nature of the archipelago of composing autonomous yet related worlds. Thus the city of networks emerges: capable of destroying proximity but also of interconnecting, an expression of self-interest no less than forms of integration, an opportunism that at the same time recreates collective identities. Precisely in the latest years of the twentieth century, the globalization of the economy and the acceleration of urbanization processes have increased the ethnic and cultural variety of the city through national and international migration processes, which have led to the penetration of different populations and ways of life to the main metropolitan areas of the world. The global is therefore localized in a segmented and spatially segregated society, through human movements caused by the destruction of old production methods and the creation of new centers of activity. And the territorial differentiation of the two processes – of creation and destruction - increases the inequality of the development of regions and countries and leads to a growing variety in the urban social structure. From the historical point of view we can say in retrospect that the world has become global since the sixteenth century through a movement towards the west that has made the Atlantic the center of the first planetary enterprise. And that the growth of the West, the conquest of the Americas, slavery in the plantations, industrial revolutions, and the flows of the populations of the nineteenth century, can therefore be summarized as a "first form-consequence of globality", an Atlantic moment culminating in the US hegemony after the First World War. A moment that, as far as we are concerned, acquires an importance and an analytical interest to emphasize, above all because the gravity of these first flows are now less easy to comprehend, secondly because the testimonies show us how these impulses towards change were planetary since beginning. Focusing at this point our attention on a smaller scale, we can assert that if in the most ancient times the history of a part of humanity could take place independently from the rest of the world, with the appearance of world capitalism, in particular in the its higher stage – imperialism – the history of humanity becomes a single process. We therefore attempt to show how, within this global context, there is what is commonly called black Africa; in particular, how sub-Saharan Africa influences and is influenced by the articulation of this hierarchical and polarized reticular reality. And an understanding of it is therefore fundamental because for a conscious planning, a general knowledge of the dynamics and relations that underlie the common phenomena of development of this extremely heterogeneous continent is indeed necessary. And only then through the mastery of how the planetary macroscopic mechanisms intertwine, and are intertwined, with the regional microcosms of this fragment of world, is it possible to reach this awareness. And consequently to intervene concretely in the territory producing compatible and contextually resolutive alternations, or, at least, liable to a productive evolution. Therefore, we are able to say that starting from the great geographical discoveries of the fifteenth century, the history of black Africa became an organic part of the history of the birth and development of world capitalism; and that the history of the origin and development of industrial capitalism in Europe and America cannot be understood without the study of the politics and the activity of industrial capital in the colonies and in particular in Africa. We therefore aim to identify first of all how the historical evolution and the processes underlying the various changes have led to the current geographical situation, paying particular attention to how the dynamics of interest have shaped the image and the attitude towards the possibilities of change in the current reality. At the same time, space will be dedicated to the identification of the socio-anthropological needs and characteristics that define the resistances and the positive propellers of development for the sub-Saharan spatial contexts in function of the present structures and their potentialities and issues. To this end, we believe it is necessary in the first place to synthetically define our area of interest, that is, to try to justify in the most programmatic way what it is meant by "black Africa” and how etymologically we have come to gather under this label the whole sub-Saharan region as a subject of study with shared dynamics. Therefore, taking into account how most of the discussions concerning African societies have been written, today, through mono-disciplinary points of view, respectively regarding socio-cultural groupings defined as "tribe" by anthropologists or concerning the 'emergence of nation-states on the continent as far as political science and economics scholars are concerned, we will try to explain the differences in emphasis reflected by the reciprocal points of view of the observer (European, American, Asian) and of the participant (African). And how generally the life of most Africans seems not to have undergone significant alterations in its totality compared to the pre-colonial period; thus highlighting by contrast those common changes, often radical and irrevocable, that have reverberated throughout the continent according to the different time-base lines of change taken into consideration. To understand how Africans see their world, it will be necessary to consider how the distinctive features of the different sub-Saharan communities constitute and have constituted the limits or strengths of the processes of modernization of their urban and rural realities. And how these cultural perspectives have influenced and still influence, albeit a posteriori, significant changes, the political and administrative management of the various populations; emphasizing the current awareness of their own position within the global production and historical system. And in particular what is the meaning of "tradition" and "tribal" order. It was therefore chosen to take the African continent, as one of the many specific areas in which to analyze the influence of the various mechanisms of globalization, placing a particular consideration for the Ugandan region for several reasons: starting from its geographical location, near the border with the DR Congo and with South Sudan, which makes it the protagonist, of important issues in the international scenario of East Africa, despite its limited territorial extension. This choice arises primarily from the realization, according to the United Nations, that the current world population is around 7.3 billion and that it is expected to reach between 9 and 11 billion by 2050. And in particular that Africa, with a figure that is around one billion inhabitants, representing approximately 15% of the world population, is in second place as the most populated continent. And according to statistics, over the next 50 years, the continent's urban areas should triple, completely transforming its profile, making it a topical example of the transformations underway and their global consequences. We cannot forget that Africa, with a dozen countries in it, is today second only to Asia as the area with the highest rate of economic growth worldwide, positioning itself among the top 20 economies for GDP growth rate. However, with the increase in economic growth, a series of weaknesses become more serious. And among these, most international observers agree in identifying the infrastructural gap as one of the most worrying obstacles to the continent's economic-commercial development. In particular, it is noted that from the transportation point of view, the road network is worse than in the seventies and eighties and about 70% of the African population lives more than 20 kilometers from roads that can be traveled throughout the year. Moreover, despite the low labor and capital costs, the prices for the transport of goods are the highest in the world: up to five times higher than in other developing countries. Not to mention the problematic situation related to water and sanitation: two thirds of Africans do not have access to adequate sanitation facilities and a third have no access to drinking water. From the concrete point of view we finally chose to transfer and convert the various data and testimonies found in the theoretical analysis, summarizing them in guidelines that, organized in a final compendium, are not to be understood as a formula to be used for an ideal and imaginary planning process. Instead these principles and recommendations must be viewed as indications and points on which to reflect so to enable to focus and help the different actors involved in the development of the project in order to carry out and coordinate an integrated, participatory, sustainable and possibly ethnographically compatible planning. In particular, we would like to add that this type of suggested planning, in itself does not guarantee the achievement of what can be defined as "sustainability". If not, however, the application of these principles and guidelines can facilitate the development of different design approaches, which, adapted to different contexts and to different scales, have as their objective actions and interventions with a "sustainable" course. From a methodological point of view, it was decided to use a deductive procedure, organizing the theoretical studies through multiple analyzes which, through the progressive restriction of the survey scale, and the reiterative comparison at every point of the study, allowed us to select and transfigure the different data to extrapolate the proposal of a framework of indicators and guidelines in the final synthesis project. We would like to again underline how the guidelines organized in the final compendium are not intended as a formula to be used for an ideal and imaginary planning process. Instead, the principles and recommendations summarized in the final summary proposal, should be taken as indications and hints. The possibility remains of deepening and implementing the aforementioned strategies through the further study of several iconic case studies so as to be able to extract a database organized by types, contexts, and so on, which would be a useful tool to accompany the guidelines and the reference points proposed. It would be interesting to be able to develop this topic in a future doctoral course.
Questo studio, composto da tre capitoli analitici e un compendio, si pone il compito di affrontare il tema dei mutamenti causati dai processi di globalizzazione attraverso tre principali punti di vista - economico, istituzionale e tecnologico; storico, antropologico e sociale; spaziale - interconnessi alle diverse scale. E in particolare, mediante la sintesi delle testimonianze studiate, generare dei modelli, indicatori, suggerimenti, principii, linee guida e raccomandazioni che permettano di sviluppare diversi approcci alla pianificazione che generino effetti in grado di focalizzare ed aiutare i diversi attori coinvolti nello sviluppo del progetto al fine dello svolgimento e della coordinazione di una pianificazione integrata, partecipativa, sostenibile e possibilmente etnograficamente compatibile. A tal fine ci si è quindi proposti di presentare una visione generale del quadro macrosistemico costituito dal concetto di mondializzazione, così da inquadrare come queste dinamiche si traducano concretamente da un punto di vista territoriale e, viceversa, come i diversi contesti caratterizzino a loro volta le reti di cui sono parte. Le città e le società stanno sperimentando una mutazione storica della loro struttura che si organizzata sempre più attorno all'informazione. E contrariamente alle previsioni dei deterministi tecnologici, i centri urbani tendono a testimoniare una progressiva concentrazione di popolazioni in agglomerati territoriali di grandi dimensioni parzialmente discontinui sotto nuove dinamiche socio-spaziali. Nel tentativo di gestione e organizzazione della massa d'informazioni apparentemente disparate che i processi di globalizzazione ci presentano, abbiamo ritenuto quindi utile concentrare la nostra analisi sintetizzando queste dinamiche in tre temi principali: l'articolazione del locale e del globale nei nuovi processi produttivi strategicamente dominanti (servizi avanzati e industria high-tech); l'emergere di nuovi schemi di insediamento spaziale, sia nei paesi sviluppati sia in quelli in via di sviluppo (mega- città, modelli di “città dispersa”, nuove e vecchie forme di urbanizzazione); la definizione di una qualità urbana sulla base dei processi di polarizzazione spaziale intermetropolitana, in un nuovo senso storico. In particolare, questo secolo si palesa attraverso due gruppi di immagini contraddittorie: se da una parte i poteri dello stato nazionale sembrano essere a volte molto costrittivi e visibili, dall'altra risultano sempre più spesso poco effettivi e rilevanti. E mentre Ralph Miliband (1969: 1) apriva la sua opera con l'affermazione “More than ever before men now live in the shadow of the state”, un crescente numero di analisti ci suggerisce che i fenomeni che caratterizzano la globalizzazione tendono a rendere gli stati sempre meno rilevanti, non solo come attori economici ma anche come contenitori sociali e culturali. Queste problematiche ci pongono perciò di fronte alla necessità di riconoscere tre principi interconnessi, cioè che innanzitutto i poteri dello stato non hanno una fissità istituzionale né su basi storiche né teoretiche, secondariamente che gli effetti che lo stato produce non vengono ottenuti solo attraverso le istituzioni nazionali o nelle aule governative, ed infine che entrambe queste due caratteristiche, intrinseche allo stato capitalista, sono state e continuano ad essere esacerbate dai fenomeni di globalizzazione. Ed è proprio per il suo identificarsi con la centralità, che lo stato risulta essere il soggetto maggiormente in crisi quando i processi di frammentazione tendono a prevalere, tanto da tornare quindi, come prima accennato, a domandarsi legittimamente se ci si trovi di fronte a ciò che viene spesso definita la “fine” dello stato-nazione. Al contempo in campo economico si parla di economia-arcipelago (Veltz) per esprimere una nuova geografia di flussi e integrazioni che attraversano tutti i confini. Così come anche della nazione si parla ormai in termini di un arcipelago (Predieri) di entità distinte e geneticamente differenziate, che ha sostituito la vecchia piramide. E in campo filosofico ci si esprime in termini di un arcipelago europeo (Cacciari) per indicare la strada per evitare sia lo spazio gerarchicamente ordinato sia l'individualismo. Al giorno d'oggi osserviamo quindi governi – o agenzie governative – che “suggeriscono”, attraverso una moltitudine di strumenti più o meno coercitivi ed efficaci, dove la popolazione dovrebbe stare o non: confini, frontiere, attraverso le quali si esprimono in maniera più o meno chiaramente visibile i conflitti tra le libertà degli individui e i poteri statali dei governi aventi 'diritti' territoriali. Risulta automatico introdurre ed analizzare il concetto di periferia, il quale può vivere solo parzialmente in maniera autonoma, in quanto presuppone il riferimento ad una spazialità altra, un “essere un qualcosa rispetto ad un qualcos'altro', e conseguentemente la presenza di almeno una dicotomia che nasce dalla coppia concettuale 'esterno-interno'. E a tal proposito, ci è sembrato quindi fondante porre l'accento sulla dimensione spaziale evocata dalla 'linea', sull'operazione che implica il tracciare un segno che stabilisce due (al minimo) poli aventi una specifica relazione. Sono in atto con particolare violenza trasformazioni per cui è necessario quindi avvalersi di strumenti multipli e interdisciplinari, che riescano a dare ragione, innanzitutto, della limitatezza degli stereotipi e delle concezioni sedimentate che mettono in relazione la periferia con il centro (o con i centri), inteso come una mentalità che attribuisce qualità e etichette. Relazione in base alla quale è possibile rilevare e definire le differenze tra periferia e periferia in un contesto contemporaneo in cui è all'opera un processo particolare di integrazione e frammentazione che in un certo senso relativizza, e al contempo accresce, le disuguaglianze, le ricchezze e la povertà. Di fronte quindi alla perdita di peso delle vecchie specificità assumono valore le nuove differenze che erodono le dimensioni intermedie e creano le condizioni per la perdita di nettezza delle linee di demarcazione, che però sono ben lungi dallo scomparire. E nella controversia è certo e sempre più evidente l'influenza delle 'relazioni', che determinano con nuova prepotenza i limiti del destino proprio di luoghi e condizioni sociali non più decisi dalla singola origine e appartenenza intesa come collocazione meramente spaziale. In particolare ci troviamo di fronte a nuove forme di 'recinzione', 'enclosures', che le società attuali producono in direzione di una sempre maggiore polarizzazione collettiva e che le politiche neo-liberali esasperano disegnando spazi transnazionali chiusi che attribuiscono diritti alle imprese e ai mercati, sigillandosi implacabilmente a coloro che non fanno parte del gioco. Una creazione di 'esternità interne' da parte delle metropoli dei nodi e dei flussi dove ricchi e poveri vivono sempre più frequentemente separati in una sorta di aphartheid economico, in cui immigrazione e gentrification costituiscono solo una parte di questo quadro in rapido mutamento di cui fanno parte anche i processi di informalizzazione dello spazio e il riprodursi su scala planetaria degli slum. Una parte considerevole dei mutamenti e dei conflitti attuali passa perciò attraverso una “contesa per lo spazio” che non ha precedenti in quanto a portata e dimensioni, un fenomeno nei confronti di cui la teoria pare essere largamente in ritardo. Negli ultimi tre decenni, le importanti trasformazioni e cesure avvenute, riassumibili sotto il nome di “globalizzazione”, hanno portato al fallimento e alla dissoluzione di molte prospettive teoriche. Stiamo assistendo ad un processo di consolidamento di un modello di concentrazione diseguale della popolazione e delle risorse che mette in campo l'emergere di crescenti squilibri tra i territori: due tendenze contrapposte che da un lato insistono sulla crescita delle opportunità per il Sud del mondo proprio perché la rottura dei vecchi equilibri economici e geopolitici schiude possibilità maggiori rispetto al passato, dall'altro processi di pauperizzazione di massa e aggravamento delle differenze di reddito palesano una disgregazione delle economie deboli e l'esclusione sociale e materiale di un numero crescente di persone. Sono stati gli anni Ottanta a rendere esplicita l'incompatibilità tra un insieme di concezioni della città e dei rapporti spaziali come erano stati tradizionalmente studiati e le mutate modalità di accumulazione su scala planetaria. E la riflessione di Erwin Gutkind sul come le città siano “sismografi” sensibili che accolgono e segnalano l'impatto provocato dai mutamenti in corso ci invita a constatare e analizzare il come le città contemporanee abbiano assunto una nuova rilevanza: un nuovo ruolo favorito dai processi di digitalizzazione e di informatizzazione che hanno contribuito alla “morte delle distanze” e creato i presupposti per il declino delle antiche centralità, in una fluidificazione di confini e barriere di tipo geo-politico che ha permesso l'apparire di “città globali” sempre più autonome nei confronti delle regioni e delle stesse nazioni in cui sono situate. Si profilano quindi luoghi in cui si tengono le redini che guidano l'economia stessa, acquisendo decisive funzioni di management finanziario orientate alla creazione di “spazi di mercato transnazionali” sempre più connessi tra loro: dei “transnational network” di portata planetaria. Una grande varietà di modelli spaziali. E se i temi della complessità e la metafora del labirinto descrivono la nostra società, il miglior contributo alla scienza dell'organizzazione è venuto dal modello della rete. Tipo in grado di dare conto della pluralità di cerchie sociali a cui si appartiene a un tempo, capace di mostrare la natura dell'arcipelago di comporre mondi autonomi eppure in relazione. Emerge quindi la città delle reti: in grado di distruggere la prossimità ma insieme di interconnettere, espressione di auto-interesse non meno che di forme d'integrazione, un opportunismo che al contempo ricrea identità collettive. Proprio negli ultimi anni del Novecento, la globalizzazione dell'economia e l'accelerazione dei processi di urbanizzazione hanno aumentato la varietà etnica e culturale della città tramite processi migratori nazionali e internazionali, che hanno portato alla penetrazione di popolazioni e di modi di vivere differenti all'interno delle principali aree metropolitane del mondo. Il globale si localizza quindi in una società segmentata e spazialmente segregata, tramite movimenti umani provocati dalla distruzione dei vecchi metodi produttivi e dalla creazione di nuovi centri di attività. E la differenziazione territoriale dei due processi – di creazione e di distruzione – accresce la disuguaglianza dello sviluppo di regioni e paesi e conduce a una crescente varietà nella struttura sociale urbana. Dal punto di vista storico possiamo dire a posteriori che il mondo è diventato globale a partire dal sedicesimo secolo attraverso un moto verso ovest che ha reso l'Atlantico il centro della prima impresa planetaria. E che la crescita dell'Ovest, la conquista delle Americhe, lo schiavismo nelle piantagioni, le rivoluzioni industriali, e i flussi delle popolazioni del diciannovesimo secolo, possono essere quindi riassunte come una “prima forma-conseguenza della globalità”, un momento Atlantico culminante nell'egemonia statunitense dopo la prima guerra mondiale. Momento che, per quanto ci riguarda, acquista un importanza ed un interesse analitico da enfatizzare, innanzitutto perché la gravità di questi primi flussi risultano ora meno facili da realizzare, secondariamente perché le testimonianze ci mostrano come tali slanci verso il cambiamento erano planetari sin dall'inizio. Focalizzando a questo punto la nostra attenzione su una scala minore, possiamo asserire che se nei tempi più antichi la storia di una parte dell'umanità poteva svolgersi autonomamente rispetto al resto del mondo, con l'entrata in scena del capitalismo mondiale, in particolare nel suo stadio superiore – l'imperialismo – la storia dell'umanità diviene un processo unico. Ci si propone quindi di far conoscere come all'interno di questo contesto globale si inserisce quella che viene comunemente chiamata Africa nera; in particolare come l'africa sub-sahariana influisce ed è influenzata dall'articolazione di questa realtà reticolare gerarchica e polarizzata. Ed è per tanto fondamentale che per una comprensione ai fini di una progettazione consapevole, sia necessaria una conoscenza generale delle dinamiche e delle relazioni che sottostanno i fenomeni comuni di sviluppo di questo continente estremamente eterogeneo. E solo quindi attraverso la padronanza di come i meccanismi macroscopici planetari si intrecciano, e si sono intrecciati, con i microcosmi regionali di questo frammento di mondo, è possibile raggiungere questa consapevolezza. E di conseguenza intervenire concretamente sul territorio producendo avvicendamenti compatibili e contestualmente risolutivi, o, per lo meno, passibili di un'evoluzione produttiva. Potendo perciò dire che a partire dalle grandi scoperte geografiche del XV secolo, la storia dell'Africa nera diviene parte organica della storia della nascita e dello sviluppo del capitalismo mondiale; e che la storia dell'origine e dello sviluppo del capitalismo industriale in Europa e in America non può essere intesa senza lo studio della politica e dell'attività del capitale industriale nelle colonie e in particolare in Africa, ci prefiggiamo quindi il compito di individuare innanzitutto come l'evoluzione storica e i processi sottostanti ai diversi mutamenti abbiano condotto alla situazione geografica attuale, ponendo particolare attenzione a come le dinamiche d'interesse abbiano plasmato l'immagine e l'atteggiamento nei confronti delle possibilità di cambiamento della realtà attuale. In contemporanea verrà dedicato spazio all'identificazione delle esigenze e delle caratteristiche socio-antropologiche che definiscono le resistenze e i motori positivi di sviluppo dei contesti spaziali sub- sahariani in funzione delle strutture presenti e delle loro potenzialità e criticità. A tal fine riteniamo necessario in primo luogo definire sinteticamente il nostro ambito d'interesse, cioè tentare di dare ragione in maniera il più possibile programmatica di cosa si intenda per “Africa nera” e di come etimologicamente si sia arrivati a raccogliere sotto questa etichetta l'intera regione sub-sahariana come oggetto di studio avente dinamiche accomunabili. Perciò, tenendo conto di come la maggior parte delle trattazioni concernenti le società africane siano state scritte, al giorno d'oggi, attraverso punti di vista mono- disciplinari, rispettivamente riguardo i raggruppamenti socio-culturali definiti come “tribù” dagli antropologi o concernenti l'emergere degli stati-nazione nel continente per quanto riguarda gli studiosi di scienze politiche ed economia, tenteremo di dare ragione delle differenze in enfasi riflesse dai punti di vista reciproci dell'osservatore (europei, americani, asiatici) e del partecipante (africani). E di come generalmente la vita della maggior parte degli africani sembra non avere subito alterazioni significative nella sua totalità rispetto al periodo pre-coloniale; evidenziando quindi per contrasto quei cambiamenti comuni, spesso radicali e irrevocabili, che si sono riverberati in tutto il continente a seconda delle diverse linee temporali-base del cambiamento prese in considerazione. Per capire quindi come gli Africani vedono il loro mondo sarà necessario affrontare come etnograficamente i tratti distintivi delle diverse comunità sub-sahariane costituiscano e hanno costituito i limiti o i punti di forza dei processi di ammodernamento delle loro realtà urbane e rurali. E di come queste ottiche culturali abbiano influenzato e influenzano tuttora, seppur a posteriori di mutamenti significativi, la gestione politica e amministrativa delle diverse popolazioni; sottolineando l'attuale consapevolezza nei confronti della loro propria posizione all'interno del sistema produttivo e storico mondiale. E in particolare di quale sia il significato di “tradizione” e “ordine” “tribale” Si è scelto perciò di prendere ad esempio il continente africano come una delle tante specifiche aree in cui andare ad analizzare l'influenza dei diversi meccanismi della globalizzazione, ponendo una particolare considerazione per la regione ugandese per diversi motivi: a partire dalla sua collocazione geografica, vicino al confine con il D.R. Congo e con il Sud Sudan, che la rende protagonista, di questioni importanti nel panorama internazionale dell'Est Africa, nonostante la sua limitata estensione territoriale. Tale scelta nasce innanzitutto dalla realizzazione, secondo le Nazioni Unite, che l'attuale popolazione mondiale si attesta all'incirca sui 7,3 miliardi e che si prevede raggiungerà tra i 9 e gli 11 miliardi entro il 2050. E in particolare che l'Africa, con una cifra che si aggira attorno al miliardo di abitanti, che rappresentano all'incirca il 15% della popolazione mondiale, si attesta al secondo posto come continente più popolato. E che secondo le statistiche, nei prossimi 50 anni, le aree urbane del continente dovrebbero triplicarsi, trasformando completamente il suo profilo, rendendolo un esempio topico delle trasformazioni in corso e delle loro conseguenze a livello globale. Non possiamo dimenticarci che l'Africa, con una decina di paesi al suo interno, è oggi seconda solo all'Asia come area a maggior tasso di crescita economica a livello mondiale, posizionandosi tra le prime 20 economie per tasso di crescita del PIL. Tuttavia, con l'aumento della crescita economica, si presentano, in modo più grave, una serie di punti deboli. E tra questi, gran parte degli osservatori internazionali, sono d'accordo nell'individuare nel gap infrastrutturale uno dei più preoccupanti freni allo sviluppo economico-commerciale del continente. In particolare, si rileva che dal punto di vista dei trasporti, la rete stradale è peggiore di quella degli anni Settanta-Ottanta e circa il 70% della popolazione africana vive a più di 20 chilometri da strade percorribili durante tutto l'anno. In più, nonostante i bassi costi di manodopera e capitale, i prezzi per il trasporto delle merci sono i più alti al mondo: fino a cinque volte maggiori rispetto agli altri paesi in via di sviluppo. Senza contare la situazione problematica relativa alle infrastrutture idriche ed igienico-sanitarie: due terzi degli Africani non hanno accesso ad adeguate strutture igienico-sanitarie e un terzo non ha accesso all'acqua potabile. Dal punto di vista concreto abbiamo infine scelto di trasferire e convertire i diversi dati e le testimonianze riscontrate nell'analisi teorica, sintetizzandoli in linee guida che, organizzate in un compendio finale, non sono da intendere come una formula da utilizzare per un processo di pianificazione ideale e immaginario. Ma tali principi e raccomandazioni vanno invece connotati come indicazioni e spunti di riflessione in grado di focalizzare ed aiutare i diversi attori coinvolti nello sviluppo del progetto al fine dello svolgimento e della coordinazione di una pianificazione integrata, partecipativa, sostenibile e possibilmente etnograficamente compatibile. In particolare, vorremmo aggiungere che questo tipo di pianificazione suggerita, in sé stessa non garantisce il raggiungimento di ciò che è definibile come ‘sostenibilità’. Se non che, l’applicazione di questi principi e linee guida può però facilitare lo sviluppo di diversi approcci progettuali, che adattati ai diversi contesti e alle diverse scale, hanno come obiettivo azioni ed interventi con un decorso ‘sostenibile’. Dal punto di vista metodologico si è scelto di utilizzare un procedimento deduttivo, organizzando gli studi teorici attraverso molteplici analisi che tramite la progressiva restrizione della scala d'indagine, ed il confronto reiterativo in ogni punto dello studio, ci ha permesso di selezionare e trasfigurare i diversi dati per estrapolare la proposta di un framework di indicatori e linee guida nel progetto di sintesi conclusiva. In particolare, abbiamo individuato tre step macroscopici (schemi successivi) grazie allo studio ed alla rielaborazione della cui letteratura ci hanno permesso di inquadrare entro quali limiti riuscire a definire i processi esposti nel compendio programmatico finale. Vorremmo sottolineare come linee guida organizzate nel compendio conclusivo, non sono da intendere come una formula da utilizzare per un processo di pianificazione ideale e immaginario. Mentre invece tali principi e raccomandazioni sintetizzate nella proposta riassuntiva finale, vanno invece connotati come indicazioni e spunti di riflessione in grado di focalizzare ed aiutare i diversi attori coinvolti nello sviluppo del progetto al fine dello svolgimento e della coordinazione di una pianificazione integrata, partecipativa, sostenibile e possibilmente etnograficamente compatibile. Rimane aperta la possibilità di approfondire le strategie stilate attraverso l'ulteriore studio di una casistica iconica così da poter estrarre un database organizzato per tipologie, contesti, e così via, che risulterebbe uno strumento utile da accompagnare alle linee guida e ai punti di riferimento proposti. Sarebbe interessante poter sviluppare questa tematica in un futuro percorso di dottorato.
Reti e società nelle città delle trasformazioni. Verso un'Africa nera delle connessioni
BIONDO, ALFIO
2018/2019
Abstract
This study, composed of three analytical chapters and a compendium, has the task of addressing the issue caused by globalization processes through three main points of view - economic, institutional and technological; historical, anthropological and social; spatial - intertwined at different scales. In particular, through a synthesis, we attempt to generate models, indicators, suggestions, principles, guidelines and recommendations that should allow to develop different planning approaches that will be able to focus and help the different actors involved in the development of the project in order to carry out and coordinate an integrated, participatory, sustainable and possibly ethnographically compatible planning. To this end it was therefore proposed to present a general view of the macro-systemic framework constituted by the concept of globalization, so as to frame how these dynamics are concretely translated from a territorial point of view and, vice versa, how the different contexts in turn characterize the networks which they are a part of. Cities and societies are experiencing an historical mutation of their structure that is increasingly organized around information. And contrary to the forecasts of technological determinists, urban centers tend to witness a progressive concentration of populations in large territorial clusters partially discontinuous under new socio-spatial dynamics. In an attempt to manage and organize the mass of seemingly disparate information presented by globalization processes, we therefore considered it useful to focus our analysis by summarizing these dynamics into three main themes: the articulation of the local and the global in the strategically new production processes dominant (advanced services and high-tech industry); the emergence of new spatial settlement schemes, both in developed and developing countries (mega-cities, models of "dispersed cities", new and old forms of urbanization); the definition of an urban quality based on the inter-metropolitan spatial polarization processes, in a new historical sense. In particular, this century is revealed through two groups of contradictory images: while on the one hand the powers of the national state seem at times to be very constrictive and visible, on the other they are increasingly often not very effective and relevant. And while Ralph Miliband (1969: 1) opened his work with the statement “More than ever before men in the shadow of the state”, a growing number of analysts suggest that the phenomena characterizing globalization tend to make the states less and less relevant, not only as economic actors but also as social and cultural containers. These problems therefore place us in front of the need to recognize three interconnected principles, namely that first of all the powers of the state do not have an institutional fixity neither on historical nor theoretical bases, secondly that the effects that the state produces are not obtained only through national institutions or in government courtrooms, and finally that both of these two characteristics, intrinsic to the capitalist state, have been and continue to be exacerbated by the phenomena of globalization. And it is precisely because of its identification with centrality that the state turns out to be the subject most in crisis when the processes of fragmentation tend to prevail, so much that, as mentioned above, we legitimately wonder whether we are faced with what is often called the "end" of the nation-state. At the same time, in the economic field we speak of an economy-archipelago (Veltz) to express a new geography of flows and integrations that cross all the borders. Just as the nation is now spoken of in terms of an archipelago (Predieri) of distinct and genetically differentiated entities, which replaced the old pyramid. And in the philosophical field it is expressed in terms of a European archipelago (Cacciari) to indicate the way to avoid both the hierarchically ordered space and individualism. Nowadays we therefore observe governments – or government agencies – that "suggest", through a multitude of more or less coercive and effective instruments, where the population should or should not be: borders, fronteers, through which they express themselves more or less clearly visible conflicts between the freedoms of individuals and the state powers of governments with territorial "rights". It is therefore automatic to introduce and analyze the concept of the periphery, which can only partially live autonomously, since it presupposes the reference to an other spatiality, "being something with respect to something else", and consequently the presence of at least one dichotomy that arises from the conceptual 'external-internal' couple. And in this regard, it therefore seemed to us fundamental to emphasize the spatial dimension evoked by the 'line', as the operation that involves drawing a sign that establishes two (at a minimum) poles having a specific relationship. Transformations are underway with particular violence, so it is necessary to make use of multiple and interdisciplinary tools, which are able to give reason, first of all, to the limited stereotypes and the sedimented conceptions that connect the periphery with the center (or with the centers), intended as a mentality that attributes qualities and labels. Report based on which it is possible to detect and define the differences between periphery and periphery in a contemporary context in which a particular process of integration and fragmentation is at work which in a certain sense relativizes, and at the same time increases, inequalities, wealth and poverty. In the face of the loss of weight of the old specificities, the new differences that erode the intermediate dimensions and create the conditions for the neatness of the lines of demarcation, which are however far from disappearing, are of value. And in the controversy, is certainly and increasingly evident the influence of 'relationships' which determine with new arrogance the limits and destiny of places and social conditions no longer decided by only the origin and the belonging, conceived as merely a spatial location. In particular we are faced with new forms of 'enclosure', which current societies produce in the direction of an ever greater collective polarization and which neoliberal policies exacerbate by drawing closed transnational spaces that attribute rights to businesses and markets, relentlessly sealing themselves to those who are not part of the game. A creation of 'internal externalities' by the metropolis of the nodes and flows where rich and poor live more and more frequently separated in a sort of economic apartheid, in which immigration and gentrification constitute only a part of this rapidly changing framework, which makes also the processes of informalization of space and the planetary reproduction of slums. A considerable part of the current changes and conflicts therefore passes through a "contention for space" that has no precedent in terms of scope and size, a phenomenon in which the theory seems to be largely late. In the last three decades, the important transformations and caesuras that occurred, which could be summarized as "globalization", led to the failure and dissolution of many theoretical perspectives. We are witnessing a process of consolidation of a model of unequal concentration of the population and resources that brings into play the emergence of growing imbalances between the territories: two opposing tendencies that on the one hand insist on the growth of opportunities for the South of the world just because the breaking of old economic and geopolitical balances opens up to greater possibilities than in the past, on the other hand processes of mass impoverishment and aggravation of income differences reveal a disintegration of weak economies and the social and material exclusion of a growing number of people. It was the 1980s that made the incompatibility between a set of conceptions of the city and spatial relationships as traditionally studied and the changed modes of accumulation on a planetary scale explicit. And the reflection of Erwin Gutkind on how cities are sensitive "seismographs" that welcome and signal the impact caused by the changes underway, invites us to see and analyze how contemporary cities have taken on a new relevance: a new role favored by processes of digitization and computerization that have contributed to the "death of distances" and created the conditions for the decline of ancient centralities, in a fluidification of geo-political boundaries and barriers that has allowed the appearance of "global cities" more and more autonomous from the regions and the same nations in which they are located. There are therefore places in which the reins that guide the economy are held, acquiring decisive functions of financial management oriented to the creation of "transnational market spaces" increasingly connected to one another: "transnational networks" with global reach. A great variety of spatial models. And if the themes of complexity and the metaphor of the labyrinth describe our society, the best contribution to the organization's science came from the network model type, able to give an account of the plurality of social circles to which one belongs and at the same time, capable of showing the nature of the archipelago of composing autonomous yet related worlds. Thus the city of networks emerges: capable of destroying proximity but also of interconnecting, an expression of self-interest no less than forms of integration, an opportunism that at the same time recreates collective identities. Precisely in the latest years of the twentieth century, the globalization of the economy and the acceleration of urbanization processes have increased the ethnic and cultural variety of the city through national and international migration processes, which have led to the penetration of different populations and ways of life to the main metropolitan areas of the world. The global is therefore localized in a segmented and spatially segregated society, through human movements caused by the destruction of old production methods and the creation of new centers of activity. And the territorial differentiation of the two processes – of creation and destruction - increases the inequality of the development of regions and countries and leads to a growing variety in the urban social structure. From the historical point of view we can say in retrospect that the world has become global since the sixteenth century through a movement towards the west that has made the Atlantic the center of the first planetary enterprise. And that the growth of the West, the conquest of the Americas, slavery in the plantations, industrial revolutions, and the flows of the populations of the nineteenth century, can therefore be summarized as a "first form-consequence of globality", an Atlantic moment culminating in the US hegemony after the First World War. A moment that, as far as we are concerned, acquires an importance and an analytical interest to emphasize, above all because the gravity of these first flows are now less easy to comprehend, secondly because the testimonies show us how these impulses towards change were planetary since beginning. Focusing at this point our attention on a smaller scale, we can assert that if in the most ancient times the history of a part of humanity could take place independently from the rest of the world, with the appearance of world capitalism, in particular in the its higher stage – imperialism – the history of humanity becomes a single process. We therefore attempt to show how, within this global context, there is what is commonly called black Africa; in particular, how sub-Saharan Africa influences and is influenced by the articulation of this hierarchical and polarized reticular reality. And an understanding of it is therefore fundamental because for a conscious planning, a general knowledge of the dynamics and relations that underlie the common phenomena of development of this extremely heterogeneous continent is indeed necessary. And only then through the mastery of how the planetary macroscopic mechanisms intertwine, and are intertwined, with the regional microcosms of this fragment of world, is it possible to reach this awareness. And consequently to intervene concretely in the territory producing compatible and contextually resolutive alternations, or, at least, liable to a productive evolution. Therefore, we are able to say that starting from the great geographical discoveries of the fifteenth century, the history of black Africa became an organic part of the history of the birth and development of world capitalism; and that the history of the origin and development of industrial capitalism in Europe and America cannot be understood without the study of the politics and the activity of industrial capital in the colonies and in particular in Africa. We therefore aim to identify first of all how the historical evolution and the processes underlying the various changes have led to the current geographical situation, paying particular attention to how the dynamics of interest have shaped the image and the attitude towards the possibilities of change in the current reality. At the same time, space will be dedicated to the identification of the socio-anthropological needs and characteristics that define the resistances and the positive propellers of development for the sub-Saharan spatial contexts in function of the present structures and their potentialities and issues. To this end, we believe it is necessary in the first place to synthetically define our area of interest, that is, to try to justify in the most programmatic way what it is meant by "black Africa” and how etymologically we have come to gather under this label the whole sub-Saharan region as a subject of study with shared dynamics. Therefore, taking into account how most of the discussions concerning African societies have been written, today, through mono-disciplinary points of view, respectively regarding socio-cultural groupings defined as "tribe" by anthropologists or concerning the 'emergence of nation-states on the continent as far as political science and economics scholars are concerned, we will try to explain the differences in emphasis reflected by the reciprocal points of view of the observer (European, American, Asian) and of the participant (African). And how generally the life of most Africans seems not to have undergone significant alterations in its totality compared to the pre-colonial period; thus highlighting by contrast those common changes, often radical and irrevocable, that have reverberated throughout the continent according to the different time-base lines of change taken into consideration. To understand how Africans see their world, it will be necessary to consider how the distinctive features of the different sub-Saharan communities constitute and have constituted the limits or strengths of the processes of modernization of their urban and rural realities. And how these cultural perspectives have influenced and still influence, albeit a posteriori, significant changes, the political and administrative management of the various populations; emphasizing the current awareness of their own position within the global production and historical system. And in particular what is the meaning of "tradition" and "tribal" order. It was therefore chosen to take the African continent, as one of the many specific areas in which to analyze the influence of the various mechanisms of globalization, placing a particular consideration for the Ugandan region for several reasons: starting from its geographical location, near the border with the DR Congo and with South Sudan, which makes it the protagonist, of important issues in the international scenario of East Africa, despite its limited territorial extension. This choice arises primarily from the realization, according to the United Nations, that the current world population is around 7.3 billion and that it is expected to reach between 9 and 11 billion by 2050. And in particular that Africa, with a figure that is around one billion inhabitants, representing approximately 15% of the world population, is in second place as the most populated continent. And according to statistics, over the next 50 years, the continent's urban areas should triple, completely transforming its profile, making it a topical example of the transformations underway and their global consequences. We cannot forget that Africa, with a dozen countries in it, is today second only to Asia as the area with the highest rate of economic growth worldwide, positioning itself among the top 20 economies for GDP growth rate. However, with the increase in economic growth, a series of weaknesses become more serious. And among these, most international observers agree in identifying the infrastructural gap as one of the most worrying obstacles to the continent's economic-commercial development. In particular, it is noted that from the transportation point of view, the road network is worse than in the seventies and eighties and about 70% of the African population lives more than 20 kilometers from roads that can be traveled throughout the year. Moreover, despite the low labor and capital costs, the prices for the transport of goods are the highest in the world: up to five times higher than in other developing countries. Not to mention the problematic situation related to water and sanitation: two thirds of Africans do not have access to adequate sanitation facilities and a third have no access to drinking water. From the concrete point of view we finally chose to transfer and convert the various data and testimonies found in the theoretical analysis, summarizing them in guidelines that, organized in a final compendium, are not to be understood as a formula to be used for an ideal and imaginary planning process. Instead these principles and recommendations must be viewed as indications and points on which to reflect so to enable to focus and help the different actors involved in the development of the project in order to carry out and coordinate an integrated, participatory, sustainable and possibly ethnographically compatible planning. In particular, we would like to add that this type of suggested planning, in itself does not guarantee the achievement of what can be defined as "sustainability". If not, however, the application of these principles and guidelines can facilitate the development of different design approaches, which, adapted to different contexts and to different scales, have as their objective actions and interventions with a "sustainable" course. From a methodological point of view, it was decided to use a deductive procedure, organizing the theoretical studies through multiple analyzes which, through the progressive restriction of the survey scale, and the reiterative comparison at every point of the study, allowed us to select and transfigure the different data to extrapolate the proposal of a framework of indicators and guidelines in the final synthesis project. We would like to again underline how the guidelines organized in the final compendium are not intended as a formula to be used for an ideal and imaginary planning process. Instead, the principles and recommendations summarized in the final summary proposal, should be taken as indications and hints. The possibility remains of deepening and implementing the aforementioned strategies through the further study of several iconic case studies so as to be able to extract a database organized by types, contexts, and so on, which would be a useful tool to accompany the guidelines and the reference points proposed. It would be interesting to be able to develop this topic in a future doctoral course.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/151558