Abstract This study attempts to respond to the need, now increasingly widespread in the clinical setting, to link together two specific pathological profiles: Alzheimer-type dementia and Down syndrome. First of all, therefore, it is necessary to trace the fundamental characteristics that accompany these pathologies. Alzheimer Disease is the most common form (50-60% of cases) of progressively disabling degenerative dementia, with onset mainly over 65 years of age (Brookmeyer et al., 1998). Its incidence increases progressively with increasing age, to reach a significant diffusion in the population over 85 years. The pathology is not hereditary (except in very rare cases), the onset of symptoms is gradual and the decline of cognitive faculties is progressive. The causes of the disease, to date, are still not well understood. Research has revealed that the disease is closely associated with the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary clusters in the brain, but the root cause of this degeneration is unknown (Tiraboschi et al., 2004). The progression of the disease is conventionally divided into three different phases: in the first, called pre-symptomatic, changes occur in the brain, which however do not occur; during the second, called prodromal, the first symptoms occur, which are mainly of a mnemonic nature and involve the social sphere of the patient's life, who tends to become estranged from it; when he reaches the third phase, the final one, the patient shows cognitive deficits involving different functional domains (Clifford, et al., 2010). As regards, however, Down Syndrome, also known as Trisomy 2, is the most common chromosomal anomaly in humans (Walter & Israel, 1993). It is a chromosomal condition caused by the presence of a third copy, or part of it, of chromosome 21. This pathology is characterized by a variable degree of delay in mental, physical and motor development. The precise causes that determine its onset are still unknown but numerous epidemiological investigations have highlighted that the factor that most influences the incidence of the disease is the maternal age: after 35 years of age of the mother, the probability of conceiving a child with this condition increases considerably. Experimental studies have shown that the mental retardation that accompanies Down Syndrome is due to an excess in the brain production of beta-amyloid, in a similar way to Alzheimer's Disease (Weksler et al., 2013). This peptide, in fact, is processed by the beta-amyloid precursor protein, whose gene is located precisely on chromosome 21 (expressed in excess in the individual with Down Syndrome). Therefore, in almost all Down subjects over the age of 35 it is possible to find the presence of senile plaques and neuro-fibrillary degenerations, even if a form of dementia may not occur. Globally, moreover, a deterioration of the path with increasing age and the development of a motor strategy based on the reduction of degrees of freedom, through the increase in the dispersion of the power generated on the frontal plane (Galli et al., 2008) and Rigoldi et al., 2011). Therefore, this study aims to identify path parameters that can be expressive of the cognitive degeneration (in particular, of Alzheimer-like dementia development) that often occurs in subjects suffering from Down Syndrome and that, therefore, are considered biomarkers predictive for an early diagnosis of the disease. After outlining the main characteristics of the syndromes, an accurate analysis of the state of the art was conducted to highlight the main kinematic alterations in the path of subjects with Alzheimer's and those with Down syndrome. As regards Alzheimer's, alterations related to parameters of a spatio-temporal nature have been highlighted over the years. In particular, the following emerged: • Slow walking speed (Sheridan et al., 2007) (Ijmker et al., 2012); • Reduced walking frequency (Sheridan et al., 2007) (Ijmker et al., 2012); • Longitudinal decline in gait speed and stride length during single and dual task activities (Ylva et al., 2014). The path of subjects with Down syndrome has often been the subject of Gait Analysis, in order to determine precisely the variations at the kinematic level. The studies considered have highlighted some alterations of interest, such as: • Increased hip, knee and ankle flexion (Galli et al., 2008); • Increased hip flexion and reduced knee and ankle flexion (Rigoldi et al., 2011); • Antiversion of the pelvis and extra-rotation of the foot in the frontal plane (Rigoldi et al., 2012); • Reduced walking speed, reduced stride length and increased stride width (Salami et al., 2014). Therefore, this thesis work includes several successive steps to achieve the final goal, namely the characterization of the evolution of the ambulatory pattern in patients with Down Syndrome, with a particular focus during growth and aging. The data of Down Syndrome patients used in this study come from the combination of the data of the IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana in Rome and the University Hospital Agostino Gemelli IRCCS. The subjects with Down Syndrome analyzed were divided into 3 subgroups, having as a criterion the possible development of Alzheimer's disease. The following are therefore distinguished: • a subject with Down Syndrome who developed Alzheimer's Syndrome; • a subject with Down Syndrome who has a possible development of Alzheimer's Syndrome; • 17 subjects with Down Syndrome who did not develop Alzheimer's Syndrome. Gait Analysis data was recorded at the movement analysis laboratory of IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana in Rome. The protocol with which the biomarkers were positioned is that of Davis and the instrumentation used consists of a 12 TVC optoelectronic system (Elite 2002, BTS, IT), two Kistler force platforms (CH) and a video camera for video recording (BTS, IT). The analysis was conducted through several steps, followed in time sequence: 1. Processing of Gait Analysis data through two dedicated software (BTS Tracklab and BTS EliteClinic in order to obtain complete reports of all data (space-time, kinematic, kinetic and force); 2. Identification of the parameters of interest, namely: • Spatio-temporal parameters: Velocity [m /s], Step Length [mm], Stride Length [mm], Step Width [mm] and Double Support [% stride]. • Kinematic parameters: Pelvic Obliquity [deg], Pelvic Tilt [deg], Hip Rotation [deg], Knee Flex-Extension [deg], Ankle Dorsi-Plantarflextion [deg] and Foot Progression [deg]. • Kinetic parameters: Knee Flex-Extension Moment [Nm/kg], Ankle Dorsi-Plantar Moment [N m / kg], Knee Power [W/kg] and Ankle Power [W/kg]. 3. Analysis of the spatio-temporal results obtained: in this step, the evaluation was carried out, for each subject, of the temporal evolution of each parameter of interest, in order to identify an increase, reduction or invariance over time. A classification of the subjects was then made into three types: subjects with Down Syndrome and AD, subjects with Down Syndrome and possible AD and finally subjects with Down Syndrome and no AD. 4. Analysis of the kinematic results obtained: also, in this step, the evaluation was carried out, for each subject, of the temporal evolution of each parameter of interest, in order to identify an increase (departure from normality), reduction (approach to normality) or invariance over time. Then, on the basis of the analysis just carried out, the presence of an improvement, pejorative or unchanged global kinematic trend was highlighted. Anatomical structures have also been identified which have a worsening trend over time, interpretable in terms of tightening of the anteversion of the pelvis, hip flexion, knee flexion, ankle plantarflexion and extra rotation of the pelvis. foot. 5. Analysis of the kinetic results obtained: lastly, the evaluation of the temporal evolution of the parameters of interest was carried out for each subject. The presence of a trend of kinetics has been highlighted, focusing above all on the power of the ankle. From here it can be deduced, given the lower peak of power generated, that the various subjects have a reduced push-off ability. In more detail, the results of this study show that, in the subject suffering from Down Syndrome over 40 years of age, the presence of a degenerative trend of the motor performance of the walk from the spatio-temporal point of view is identifiable, characterized by a reduction in the walking velocity (Mean Velocity), a shortening of the length of the single step (Step Length) and a shortening of the length of the double step (Stride length). The literature authorizes a diagnosis of Alzheimer's development to be associated with these subjects. Even the analysis of the subject suffering from Down Syndrome under 40 years (with the possible diagnosis of AD) can be highlighted the presence of a very similar trend. In the 3 of the 17 subjects with Down Syndrome, without any diagnosis of AD, the presence of a worsening trend of the spatio-temporal parameters is not found and, therefore, no hypothesis of the onset of Alzheimer's disease can be formulated. But, from the kinematic point of view, there is a reduction over time of knee flexion during swing. Furthermore, in AD subjects and in possible AD subjects, the presence of the disease is also confirmed by the analysis of the kinematic results: where there is a worsening trend of the motor performance of the walk from the kinematic point of view and an increase in the Kinematic motor alterations that characterize individuals affected by Down syndrome (anteversion of the pelvis, flexion of the hip and knee, plantarflexion of the ankle and extra rotation of the foot). The most relevant conclusions of the research that has been reached are therefore summarized as follows: 1. The spatio-temporal parameters "walking speed (Mean Velocity)", "single step length (Step Length)" and "double step length (Stride Length)" are predictive of the onset of Alzheimer Disease not only in the subject Down over 40 years (with Alzheimer diagnosis) but also in the one under 40 years (with possible diagnosis of Alzheimer). Not only, therefore, are they an integral part of a motor profile typical of the development of Alzheimer's in subjects suffering from Down syndrome, but they can also be used as predictive biomarkers of its onset. 2. The subjects presenting deterioration of the motor performance from a spatio-temporal point of view also present a decay of the kinematic and kinetic parameters. 3. The subjects who have not tested positive for Alzheimer's, despite showing an improvement trend as regards the spatio-temporal parameters, have a decreasing knee flexion-extension trend, which could be predictive of a possible onset of the disease. Two, however, are the fundamental limitations of the study: firstly the low number of the sample of the population (composed of only 5 subjects), secondly the poorly standardized time frequency of the sessions of the various patients (which did not allow to conduct acquisitions based on comparable time frames). In any case, these limits do not affect the fact that this study allows to evaluate different research and application scenarios.
Sommario Il presente studio tenta di rispondere all’esigenza, ormai sempre più diffusa in ambito clinico, di legare tra loro due specifici profili patologici: demenza di tipo Alzheimer e Sindrome Down. In primis, quindi, risulta necessario tracciare le caratteristiche fondamentali che accompagnano queste patologie. L’Alzheimer Disease è la forma più comune (50-60 % dei casi) di demenza degenerativa progressivamente invalidante, con esordio prevalentemente oltre i 65 anni di età (Brookmeyer et al., 1998). La sua incidenza aumenta progressivamente con l’aumentare dell’età, per raggiungere una diffusione significativa nella popolazione oltre gli 85 anni. La patologia non è ereditaria (salvo rarissimi casi), l’insorgenza dei sintomi è graduale ed il declino delle facoltà cognitive è di tipo progressivo. Le cause della patologia, a tutt’oggi, non sono ancora ben comprese. La ricerca ha reso noto che la malattia è strettamente associata alla formazione, nel cervello, di placche amiloidi ed ammassi neurofibrillari ma non è nota la causa prima di tale degenerazione (Tiraboschi et al., 2004). La progressione della malattia è convenzionalmente scandita in tre diverse fasi: nella prima, denominata pre-sintomatica, avvengono cambiamenti a livello cerebrale, che però non si manifestano; durante la seconda, denominata prodromica, si verificano i primi sintomi, che sono principalmente di natura mnemonica e coinvolgono la sfera sociale della vita del paziente, il quale tende ad estraniarvisi; quando raggiunge la terza fase, quella finale, il paziente mostra deficit cognitivi che coinvolgono diversi domini funzionali (Clifford, et al., 2010). Per quanto concerne, invece, la Sindrome Down, nota anche come Trisomia 2, è la più comune anomalia cromosomica negli esseri umani (Walter & Israel, 1993). Si tratta di una condizione cromosomica causata dalla presenza di una terza copia, o di una sua parte, del cromosoma 21. Questa patologia è caratterizzata da un variabile grado di ritardo nello sviluppo mentale, fisico e motorio. Le cause precise che ne determinano l’insorgenza sono ancora sconosciute ma numerose indagini epidemiologiche hanno messo in evidenza che il fattore che maggiormente influenza l’incidenza della patologia è l’età materna: superati i 35 anni di età della madre, la probabilità di concepire un figlio affetto da tale condizione aumenta considerevolmente. Studi sperimentali hanno dimostrato che il ritardo mentale che accompagna la Sindrome Down è dovuto ad un eccesso nella produzione cerebrale di beta-amiloide, in maniera del tutto simile all’Alzheimer Disease (Weksler et al., 2013). Questo peptide, infatti, è elaborato dalla proteina precursore della beta-amiloide, il cui gene è localizzato proprio sul cromosoma 21 (espresso in eccesso nell’individuo con Sindrome Down). In quasi tutti i soggetti Down di età superiore ai 35 anni è possibile, quindi, riscontrare la presenza di placche senili e degenerazioni neuro-fibrillari, anche se potrebbe non presentarsi una forma di demenza. Globalmente, inoltre, è individuabile un deterioramento del cammino all’aumentare dell’età e lo sviluppo di una strategia motoria basata sulla riduzione dei gradi di libertà, attraverso l’aumento della dispersione della potenza generata sul piano frontale (Galli et al., 2008 e Rigoldi et al., 2011). Quindi, questo studio si pone l’obiettivo di identificare dei parametri del cammino che possano essere espressivi della degenerazione cognitiva (in particolare, dello sviluppo demenza di tipo Alzheimer) che spesso insorge in soggetti affetti da Sindrome Down e che, quindi, siano considerabili biomarcatori predittivi al fine di una diagnosi precoce della patologia. Dopo aver delineato le principali caratteristiche delle sindromi, è stata condotta un’accurata analisi dello stato dell’arte per evidenziare le principali alterazioni cinematiche nel cammino dei soggetti con Alzheimer e di quelli con sindrome di Down. Per quanto riguarda l’Alzheimer, nel corso degli anni sono state evidenziate alterazioni relative a parametri di natura spazio-temporale. In particolare, sono emerse: • Ridotta velocità del cammino (Sheridan et al., 2007) (Ijmker et al., 2012); • Ridotta frequenza del passo (Sheridan et al., 2007) (Ijmker et al., 2012); • Declino longitudinale della velocità dell'andatura e della lunghezza del passo durante l’attività di single e dual task (Ylva et al., 2014). Il cammino di soggetti con sindrome di Down è stato spesso oggetto di Gait Analysis, al fine di determinare proprio le variazioni a livello cinematico. Gli studi considerati hanno messo in evidenza alcune alterazioni d’interesse, quali: • Aumentata flessione di anca, ginocchio e caviglia (Galli et al., 2008); • Aumentata flessione di anca e ridotta flessione di ginocchio e caviglia (Rigoldi et al., 2011); • Antiversione del bacino ed extra-rotazione del piede nel piano frontale (Rigoldi et al., 2012); • Ridotta velocità del cammino, ridotta lunghezza del passo e ampiezza del passo maggiore (Salami et al., 2014). Quindi, il presente lavoro di tesi comprende diversi steps successivi per il raggiungimento dell’obiettivo finale, ovvero la caratterizzazione dell’evoluzione del pattern deambulatorio in pazienti con Sindrome di Down, con particolare focus durante la crescita e l’invecchiamento. I dati dei pazienti con Sindrome di Down utilizzati nel presente studio provengono dall’unione dei dati del IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana di Roma e del Policlinico Universitario Agostino Gemelli IRCCS. I soggetti con Sindrome di Down analizzati, sono stati suddivisi in 3 sottogruppi, aventi come criterio il possibile sviluppo della malattia di Alzheimer. Si distinguono quindi: • un soggetto con Sindrome di Down che ha sviluppato la Sindrome di Alzheimer; • un soggetto con Sindrome di Down che ha un possibile sviluppo di Sindrome di Alzheimer; • 3 su 17 soggetti con Sindrome di Down che non hanno sviluppato la Sindrome di Alzheimer. I dati di Gait Analysis sono stati registrati presso il laboratorio di analisi del movimento dell’IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana di Roma. Il protocollo col quale sono stati posizionati i biomarkers è quello di Davis e la strumentazione utilizzata consiste in un sistema optoelettronico 12 TVC (Elite 2002, BTS, IT), due piattaforme di forza Kistler (CH) e una videocamera per la ripresa video (BTS, IT). L’analisi è stata condotta attraverso diversi steps, percorsi in sequenza temporale: 1. Elaborazione dei dati di Gait Analysis attraverso due software dedicati (BTS Tracklab e BTS EliteClinic al fine di ottenere report completi di tutti i dati (spazio-temporali, cinematici, cinetici e di forza); 2. Individuazione dei parametri di interesse, ossia: • Parametri spazio-temporali: Velocity [m/s], Step Length [mm], Stride Length [mm], Step Width [mm] e Double Support [% stride]. • Parametri cinematici: Pelvic Obliquity [deg], Pelvic Tilt [deg], Hip Rotation [deg], Knee Flex-Extension [deg], Ankle Dorsi-Plantarflextion [deg] e Foot Progression [deg]. • Parametri cinetici: Knee Flex-Extension Moment [Nm/kg], Ankle Dorsi-Plantar Moment [Nm/kg], Knee Power [W/kg] e Ankle Power [W/kg]. 3. Analisi dei risultati spazio-temporali ottenuti: in questo step è stata, innanzitutto, realizzata la valutazione, per ciascun soggetto, dell’evoluzione temporale di ciascun parametro di interesse, al fine di identificare un suo aumento, riduzione o invarianza nel tempo. È stata poi realizzata una classificazione dei soggetti in tre tipologie: soggetti con Sindrome di Down e AD, soggetti con Sindrome di Down e possibile AD ed infine soggetti con Sindrome di Down e no AD. 4. Analisi dei risultati cinematici ottenuti: anche in questo step è stata, innanzitutto, realizzata la valutazione, per ciascun soggetto, dell’evoluzione temporale di ciascun parametro di interesse, al fine di identificare un suo aumento (allontanamento dalla normalità), riduzione (avvicinamento alla normalità) o invarianza nel tempo. Poi, sulla base dell’analisi appena svolta, è stata messa in luce la presenza di un trend della cinematica globale migliorativo, peggiorativo o invariato. Sono state inoltre identificate le strutture anatomiche a carico delle quali si registra un trend peggiorativo nel tempo, interpretabile in termini di inasprimento dell’antiversione del bacino, della flessione dell’anca, della flessione del ginocchio, della plantarflessione della caviglia e dell’extrarotazione del piede. 5. Analisi dei risultati cinetici ottenuti: in ultimo, è stata realizzata la valutazione, per ciascun soggetto, dell’evoluzione temporale dei parametri di interesse. È stata messa in luce la presenza di un trend della cinetica, focalizzandosi soprattutto sulla potenza della caviglia. Da qui si può dedurre, dato il picco minore di potenza generata, che i vari soggetti hanno una ridotta push-off ability. Più dettagliatamente, i risultati di questo studio mostrano che, nel soggetto affetto da Sindrome Down sopra i 40 anni di età, è identificabile la presenza di un trend degenerativo della performance motoria del cammino dal punto di vista spazio-temporale, caratterizzato da una riduzione della velocità del cammino (Mean Velocity), un accorciamento della lunghezza del passo singolo (Step Length) ed un accorciamento della lunghezza del passo doppio (Stride length). La letteratura autorizza ad associare a questi soggetti una diagnosi di sviluppo di Alzheimer. Anche l’analisi del soggetto affetto da Sindrome Down sotto i 40 anni (con possibile diagnosi di AD) è evidenziabile la presenza di un trend del tutto simile. Nei 3 dei 17 soggetti con Sindrome di Down, senza alcuna diagnosi di AD, non si riscontra la presenza di un trend peggiorativo dei parametri spazio-temporali e, quindi, non è formulabile alcuna ipotesi di insorgenza della malattia di Alzheimer. Ma, dal punto di vista della cinematica, si riscontra una riduzione nel tempo della flessione del ginocchio in fase di swing. Inoltre, nei soggetti si AD e in quelli possibili AD, la presenza della malattia trova una conferma anche dall’analisi dei risultati cinematici: dove si riscontra la presenza di un trend peggiorativo della performance motoria del cammino dal punto di vista cinematico e un inasprimento delle alterazioni motorie cinematiche che caratterizzano in partenza gli individui affetti da Sindrome Down (antiversione del bacino, flessione di anca e ginocchio, plantarflessione della caviglia ed extrarotazione del piede). Le conclusioni più rilevanti della ricerca a cui si è giunti, sono dunque così riassumibili: 1. I parametri spazio-temporali “velocità del cammino (Velocity)”, “lunghezza del passo singolo (Step Length)” e “lunghezza del passo doppio (Stride Length)” sono predittivi dell’insorgenza di Alzheimer Disease non solo nel soggetto Down sopra i 40 anni (con diagnosi di Alzheimer) ma anche in quello sotto i 40 anni (con possibile diagnosi di Alzheimer). Non solo, quindi, sono parte integrante di un profilo motorio tipico dello sviluppo di Alzheimer in soggetti affetti da sindrome Down, ma possono anche essere utilizzati come biomarcatori predittivi della sua insorgenza. 2. I soggetti che presentano deterioramento della performance motoria dal punto di vista spazio-temporale presentano anche un decadimento dei parametri cinematici e cinetici. 3. I soggetti che non sono risultati positivi alla diagnosi di Alzheimer, nonostante mostrino un trend migliorativo per quanto concerne i parametri spazio-temporali, hanno un andamento della flesso-estensione del ginocchio decrescente, che potrebbe essere predittivo di una possibile insorgenza della malattia. Due, però, sono i limiti fondamentali dello studio: in primis lo scarso numero del campione di popolazione (composta solo da 5 soggetti), in secondo luogo la frequenza temporale scarsamente standardizzata delle sessioni dei vari pazienti (che non ha permesso di condurre acquisizioni basate su cadenze temporali confrontabili). In ogni caso, tali limiti non vanno ad inficiare il fatto che questo studio permette di valutare differenti scenari di ricerca e di applicazione.
Evoluzione del pattern deambulatorio in pazienti con sindrome di Down durante la crescita e l'invecchiamento
Ceccarino, Ludovica
2019/2020
Abstract
Abstract This study attempts to respond to the need, now increasingly widespread in the clinical setting, to link together two specific pathological profiles: Alzheimer-type dementia and Down syndrome. First of all, therefore, it is necessary to trace the fundamental characteristics that accompany these pathologies. Alzheimer Disease is the most common form (50-60% of cases) of progressively disabling degenerative dementia, with onset mainly over 65 years of age (Brookmeyer et al., 1998). Its incidence increases progressively with increasing age, to reach a significant diffusion in the population over 85 years. The pathology is not hereditary (except in very rare cases), the onset of symptoms is gradual and the decline of cognitive faculties is progressive. The causes of the disease, to date, are still not well understood. Research has revealed that the disease is closely associated with the formation of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary clusters in the brain, but the root cause of this degeneration is unknown (Tiraboschi et al., 2004). The progression of the disease is conventionally divided into three different phases: in the first, called pre-symptomatic, changes occur in the brain, which however do not occur; during the second, called prodromal, the first symptoms occur, which are mainly of a mnemonic nature and involve the social sphere of the patient's life, who tends to become estranged from it; when he reaches the third phase, the final one, the patient shows cognitive deficits involving different functional domains (Clifford, et al., 2010). As regards, however, Down Syndrome, also known as Trisomy 2, is the most common chromosomal anomaly in humans (Walter & Israel, 1993). It is a chromosomal condition caused by the presence of a third copy, or part of it, of chromosome 21. This pathology is characterized by a variable degree of delay in mental, physical and motor development. The precise causes that determine its onset are still unknown but numerous epidemiological investigations have highlighted that the factor that most influences the incidence of the disease is the maternal age: after 35 years of age of the mother, the probability of conceiving a child with this condition increases considerably. Experimental studies have shown that the mental retardation that accompanies Down Syndrome is due to an excess in the brain production of beta-amyloid, in a similar way to Alzheimer's Disease (Weksler et al., 2013). This peptide, in fact, is processed by the beta-amyloid precursor protein, whose gene is located precisely on chromosome 21 (expressed in excess in the individual with Down Syndrome). Therefore, in almost all Down subjects over the age of 35 it is possible to find the presence of senile plaques and neuro-fibrillary degenerations, even if a form of dementia may not occur. Globally, moreover, a deterioration of the path with increasing age and the development of a motor strategy based on the reduction of degrees of freedom, through the increase in the dispersion of the power generated on the frontal plane (Galli et al., 2008) and Rigoldi et al., 2011). Therefore, this study aims to identify path parameters that can be expressive of the cognitive degeneration (in particular, of Alzheimer-like dementia development) that often occurs in subjects suffering from Down Syndrome and that, therefore, are considered biomarkers predictive for an early diagnosis of the disease. After outlining the main characteristics of the syndromes, an accurate analysis of the state of the art was conducted to highlight the main kinematic alterations in the path of subjects with Alzheimer's and those with Down syndrome. As regards Alzheimer's, alterations related to parameters of a spatio-temporal nature have been highlighted over the years. In particular, the following emerged: • Slow walking speed (Sheridan et al., 2007) (Ijmker et al., 2012); • Reduced walking frequency (Sheridan et al., 2007) (Ijmker et al., 2012); • Longitudinal decline in gait speed and stride length during single and dual task activities (Ylva et al., 2014). The path of subjects with Down syndrome has often been the subject of Gait Analysis, in order to determine precisely the variations at the kinematic level. The studies considered have highlighted some alterations of interest, such as: • Increased hip, knee and ankle flexion (Galli et al., 2008); • Increased hip flexion and reduced knee and ankle flexion (Rigoldi et al., 2011); • Antiversion of the pelvis and extra-rotation of the foot in the frontal plane (Rigoldi et al., 2012); • Reduced walking speed, reduced stride length and increased stride width (Salami et al., 2014). Therefore, this thesis work includes several successive steps to achieve the final goal, namely the characterization of the evolution of the ambulatory pattern in patients with Down Syndrome, with a particular focus during growth and aging. The data of Down Syndrome patients used in this study come from the combination of the data of the IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana in Rome and the University Hospital Agostino Gemelli IRCCS. The subjects with Down Syndrome analyzed were divided into 3 subgroups, having as a criterion the possible development of Alzheimer's disease. The following are therefore distinguished: • a subject with Down Syndrome who developed Alzheimer's Syndrome; • a subject with Down Syndrome who has a possible development of Alzheimer's Syndrome; • 17 subjects with Down Syndrome who did not develop Alzheimer's Syndrome. Gait Analysis data was recorded at the movement analysis laboratory of IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana in Rome. The protocol with which the biomarkers were positioned is that of Davis and the instrumentation used consists of a 12 TVC optoelectronic system (Elite 2002, BTS, IT), two Kistler force platforms (CH) and a video camera for video recording (BTS, IT). The analysis was conducted through several steps, followed in time sequence: 1. Processing of Gait Analysis data through two dedicated software (BTS Tracklab and BTS EliteClinic in order to obtain complete reports of all data (space-time, kinematic, kinetic and force); 2. Identification of the parameters of interest, namely: • Spatio-temporal parameters: Velocity [m /s], Step Length [mm], Stride Length [mm], Step Width [mm] and Double Support [% stride]. • Kinematic parameters: Pelvic Obliquity [deg], Pelvic Tilt [deg], Hip Rotation [deg], Knee Flex-Extension [deg], Ankle Dorsi-Plantarflextion [deg] and Foot Progression [deg]. • Kinetic parameters: Knee Flex-Extension Moment [Nm/kg], Ankle Dorsi-Plantar Moment [N m / kg], Knee Power [W/kg] and Ankle Power [W/kg]. 3. Analysis of the spatio-temporal results obtained: in this step, the evaluation was carried out, for each subject, of the temporal evolution of each parameter of interest, in order to identify an increase, reduction or invariance over time. A classification of the subjects was then made into three types: subjects with Down Syndrome and AD, subjects with Down Syndrome and possible AD and finally subjects with Down Syndrome and no AD. 4. Analysis of the kinematic results obtained: also, in this step, the evaluation was carried out, for each subject, of the temporal evolution of each parameter of interest, in order to identify an increase (departure from normality), reduction (approach to normality) or invariance over time. Then, on the basis of the analysis just carried out, the presence of an improvement, pejorative or unchanged global kinematic trend was highlighted. Anatomical structures have also been identified which have a worsening trend over time, interpretable in terms of tightening of the anteversion of the pelvis, hip flexion, knee flexion, ankle plantarflexion and extra rotation of the pelvis. foot. 5. Analysis of the kinetic results obtained: lastly, the evaluation of the temporal evolution of the parameters of interest was carried out for each subject. The presence of a trend of kinetics has been highlighted, focusing above all on the power of the ankle. From here it can be deduced, given the lower peak of power generated, that the various subjects have a reduced push-off ability. In more detail, the results of this study show that, in the subject suffering from Down Syndrome over 40 years of age, the presence of a degenerative trend of the motor performance of the walk from the spatio-temporal point of view is identifiable, characterized by a reduction in the walking velocity (Mean Velocity), a shortening of the length of the single step (Step Length) and a shortening of the length of the double step (Stride length). The literature authorizes a diagnosis of Alzheimer's development to be associated with these subjects. Even the analysis of the subject suffering from Down Syndrome under 40 years (with the possible diagnosis of AD) can be highlighted the presence of a very similar trend. In the 3 of the 17 subjects with Down Syndrome, without any diagnosis of AD, the presence of a worsening trend of the spatio-temporal parameters is not found and, therefore, no hypothesis of the onset of Alzheimer's disease can be formulated. But, from the kinematic point of view, there is a reduction over time of knee flexion during swing. Furthermore, in AD subjects and in possible AD subjects, the presence of the disease is also confirmed by the analysis of the kinematic results: where there is a worsening trend of the motor performance of the walk from the kinematic point of view and an increase in the Kinematic motor alterations that characterize individuals affected by Down syndrome (anteversion of the pelvis, flexion of the hip and knee, plantarflexion of the ankle and extra rotation of the foot). The most relevant conclusions of the research that has been reached are therefore summarized as follows: 1. The spatio-temporal parameters "walking speed (Mean Velocity)", "single step length (Step Length)" and "double step length (Stride Length)" are predictive of the onset of Alzheimer Disease not only in the subject Down over 40 years (with Alzheimer diagnosis) but also in the one under 40 years (with possible diagnosis of Alzheimer). Not only, therefore, are they an integral part of a motor profile typical of the development of Alzheimer's in subjects suffering from Down syndrome, but they can also be used as predictive biomarkers of its onset. 2. The subjects presenting deterioration of the motor performance from a spatio-temporal point of view also present a decay of the kinematic and kinetic parameters. 3. The subjects who have not tested positive for Alzheimer's, despite showing an improvement trend as regards the spatio-temporal parameters, have a decreasing knee flexion-extension trend, which could be predictive of a possible onset of the disease. Two, however, are the fundamental limitations of the study: firstly the low number of the sample of the population (composed of only 5 subjects), secondly the poorly standardized time frequency of the sessions of the various patients (which did not allow to conduct acquisitions based on comparable time frames). In any case, these limits do not affect the fact that this study allows to evaluate different research and application scenarios.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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Descrizione: Tesi di Laurea Ludovica Ceccarino
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/167141