Population growth, climate change, and digitalization are only a few of the major macroeconomic trends that will completely reshape the world in the upcoming decades. The need to move towards a more sustainable world implies a larger and larger use of clean technologies and the exploitation of green energy sources, among which two of the major ones are wind and solar PV applications. On the other hand, these technologies require the use of some raw materials, such as rare earth elements, that are often regarded as critical and that might generate future issues. The present work aims at analyzing the supply chain of the required critical raw materials in order to understand how their use will affect technology, economics, geopolitics, and what the main issues that might arise from their extensive use are. Technological state of the art is addressed both for wind turbines and solar PV modules, together with the market framework of their major components. Regarding the raw materials used in these applications, an analysis of geological reserves, mining industry, and recycling is performed. The most critical raw materials are identified, and their major criticalities are highlighted, such as the dependence on China for the supply of both wind turbines and solar PV modules, the possibility of complete depletion of reserves, and where future bottlenecks may appear. Furthermore, the global distribution of production is addressed and the regions that are most exposed to single-source imports, such as the European Union, are identified. Ultimately, an overall analysis of the main mitigation strategies to ease the demand for critical raw materials is performed and reported, namely: (i) the use of substitute technology, (ii) the use of substitute materials, (iii) the exploration of new reserves and mining capacity expansion, (iv) the improvement in material intensity, (v) recycling. The ultimate goal is to describe where these critical raw materials are mined, where they are manufactured and processed, what they are used for, what are the major issues and how policymakers could address them. The analysis has been performed through an extensive review of the most important literature sources and the time horizon considered is from today until 2050.
La crescita della popolazione mondiale, il cambiamento climatico e la digitalizzazione sono solo alcune delle principali tendenze macroeconomiche che rimodelleranno completamente il mondo nei prossimi decenni. La necessità di dirigersi verso un mondo più sostenibile implica un uso sempre più ampio di tecnologie pulite e dello sfruttamento di fonti energetiche verdi, tra cui due delle principali risultano essere l’eolico ed il solare fotovoltaico. Tuttavia, queste tecnologie richiedono l’utilizzo di alcune materie prime, come ad esempio le cosiddette terre rare, che spesso vengono considerate critiche e che potrebbero in futuro creare complicazioni. Il presente lavoro ha lo scopo di analizzare la supply chain delle materie prime critiche necessarie per le applicazioni eoliche e fotovoltaiche al fine di valutare come il loro utilizzo influirà sul settore tecnologico/ingegneristico, sull’economia e sugli equilibri geopolitici, nonché quali problemi potrebbero nascere da un loro impiego su larga scala. In particolare, sia per l’eolico che per il fotovoltaico, i seguenti argomenti vengono analizzati: stato dell’arte, panoramica del mercato, risorse geologiche e industria mineraria e, infine, riciclo dei materiali considerati. Vengono identificati i materiali più critici e le loro maggiori problematiche analizzate come, ad esempio, la dipendennza dalla Cina sia per la fornitura di turbine eoliche che per i moduli fotovoltaici, la possibilità di esaurire le risorse naturali e le circostanze in cui potrebbero verificarsi dei colli di bottiglia. Inoltre, viene analizzata anche la distribuzione mondiale della produzione e vengono identificate le regioni che risultano essere maggiormente esposte a importazioni da mono-fornitori come, ad esempio, l’Unione Europea. Infine, viene effettuata un’analisi generale delle principali strategie di mitigazione mirate a ridurre la domanda di materiali critici. In particolare, vengono analizzate nel dettaglio l’utilizzo di tecnologie alternative, l’utilizzo di materiali alternativi, l’esplorazione di nuove riserve geologiche e l’ampliamento della capacità mineraria, il miglioramento della material intensity ed il riciclo dei materiali a fine vita dei componenti. Il fine ultimo è quindi quello di descrivere dove i materiali considerati vengono estratti, dove vengono trattati ed utilizzati nella filiera manifatturiera, per cosa vengono utilizzati, quali sono le problematiche principali e come queste possono essere affrontate dai policy makers. L’analisi indicata è stata effettuata attraverso un’estesa revisione della principale e più importante letteratura sull’argomento mentre l’orizzonte temporale considerato si estende fino all’anno 2050.
Critical raw materials for wind and solar PV energy applications : state of the art, future opportunities and critical issues
Gotti, Federico
2020/2021
Abstract
Population growth, climate change, and digitalization are only a few of the major macroeconomic trends that will completely reshape the world in the upcoming decades. The need to move towards a more sustainable world implies a larger and larger use of clean technologies and the exploitation of green energy sources, among which two of the major ones are wind and solar PV applications. On the other hand, these technologies require the use of some raw materials, such as rare earth elements, that are often regarded as critical and that might generate future issues. The present work aims at analyzing the supply chain of the required critical raw materials in order to understand how their use will affect technology, economics, geopolitics, and what the main issues that might arise from their extensive use are. Technological state of the art is addressed both for wind turbines and solar PV modules, together with the market framework of their major components. Regarding the raw materials used in these applications, an analysis of geological reserves, mining industry, and recycling is performed. The most critical raw materials are identified, and their major criticalities are highlighted, such as the dependence on China for the supply of both wind turbines and solar PV modules, the possibility of complete depletion of reserves, and where future bottlenecks may appear. Furthermore, the global distribution of production is addressed and the regions that are most exposed to single-source imports, such as the European Union, are identified. Ultimately, an overall analysis of the main mitigation strategies to ease the demand for critical raw materials is performed and reported, namely: (i) the use of substitute technology, (ii) the use of substitute materials, (iii) the exploration of new reserves and mining capacity expansion, (iv) the improvement in material intensity, (v) recycling. The ultimate goal is to describe where these critical raw materials are mined, where they are manufactured and processed, what they are used for, what are the major issues and how policymakers could address them. The analysis has been performed through an extensive review of the most important literature sources and the time horizon considered is from today until 2050.File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/187601