This study presents a comprehensive review and synthesis of analytical models, empirical evidence, and simulation approaches for pedestrian behavior in open and confined spaces under normal and emergency conditions. Drawing on over 200 peer‑reviewed sources spanning 2000–2025, the research integrates quantitative data on walking speeds, spatial and temporal headways, density thresholds, design capacities, empirical flow capacities, and Level‑of‑Service (LOS) frameworks, with a focus on contextual variability across facility types and scenarios. Normal adult walking speeds range from 1.17 m/s (women) to 1.21 m/s (men) in open spaces, decreasing to 0.81–0.93 m/s in confined environments; elderly and mobility‑restricted populations exhibit speeds as low as 0.73 m/s. Headway metrics derived from Benz’s time–space methodology reveal spatial headways (hₛ) from 3.0 m in low‑density open spaces to < 0.5 m in emergency bottleneck flows, with corresponding time headways (hₜ) from ~2 s to < 0.5 s. Comparative analysis of Fruin’s original LOS criteria and contemporary adaptations shows density thresholds from ~0.27 p/m² (LOS A) to ≥ 1.37 p/m² (LOS F), with modified cut‑offs reflecting cultural, anthropometric, and comfort‑based considerations. Design capacity benchmarks indicate pedestrian facility thresholds highly dependent on national standards, ranging for sidewalks from 1,800–3,600 p/h/m at LOS C and for corridors from 1,320–2,400 p/h/m, while empirical flow studies record actual performance from 1.0–2.5 ped/s in bottlenecks, 0.6–0.8 ped/s on stairs, and velocity and throughput reductions of 22–47% in emergency conditions with luggage. These findings highlight divergence between normative and observed performance, reinforcing the need for locally calibrated parameters in planning and safety design. A taxonomy of modelling approaches—macroscopic, microscopic, empirical, analytical, and hybrid—is matched with their operational contexts within simulation platforms such as agent‑based models, cellular automata, and social force formulations. The review concludes that integrating micro‑scale behavioral indicators (headways) with macro‑scale performance measures (flow, speed, density) produces more accurate and adaptable design, evacuation planning, and policy frameworks, particularly when calibrated against culturally and spatially specific datasets.
Questo studio presenta una rassegna e una sintesi completa dei modelli analitici, delle evidenze empiriche e degli approcci di simulazione relativi al comportamento pedonale in spazi aperti e confinati, sia in condizioni normali sia di emergenza. Basandosi su oltre 200 fonti peer-reviewed pubblicate tra il 2000 e il 2025, la ricerca integra dati quantitativi su velocità di cammino, distanze e tempi di headway, soglie di densità, capacità di progetto, capacità di flusso empiriche e quadri di riferimento del Level-of-Service (LOS), con particolare attenzione alla variabilità contestuale tra tipologie di strutture e scenari. Le velocità di cammino degli adulti in condizioni normali variano da 1,17 m/s (donne) a 1,21 m/s (uomini) in spazi aperti, riducendosi a 0,81–0,93 m/s in ambienti confinati; le popolazioni anziane o con mobilità ridotta mostrano valori fino a 0,73 m/s. Le metriche di headway derivate dalla metodologia spazio-tempo di Benz evidenziano distanze spaziali (hₛ) da 3,0 m in spazi aperti a bassa densità a meno di 0,5 m nei flussi di imbuto in emergenza, con corrispondenti headway temporali (hₜ) da circa 2 s a meno di 0,5 s. L’analisi comparativa tra i criteri originali di Fruin e le loro versioni contemporanee mostra soglie di densità da circa 0,27 p/m² (LOS A) fino a ≥ 1,37 p/m² (LOS F), con cut-off modificati per riflettere considerazioni culturali, antropometriche e di comfort. I valori di capacità di progetto indicano soglie delle strutture pedonali fortemente dipendenti dagli standard nazionali, variando per i marciapiedi da 1.800 a 3.600 p/h/m a LOS C e per i corridoi da 1.320 a 2.400 p/h/m, mentre gli studi empirici sui flussi registrano prestazioni effettive da 1,0 a 2,5 ped/s nei colli di bottiglia, 0,6–0,8 ped/s sulle scale e riduzioni di velocità e portata del 22–47% in condizioni di emergenza con bagagli. Questi risultati evidenziano la divergenza tra prestazioni normative e osservate, rafforzando la necessità di parametri calibrati localmente per la pianificazione e la progettazione in sicurezza. Una tassonomia degli approcci modellistici—macroscopici, microscopici, empirici, analitici e ibridi—viene messa in relazione con i rispettivi contesti operativi all’interno di piattaforme di simulazione quali modelli ad agenti, automi cellulari e formulazioni a forze sociali. La revisione conclude che l’integrazione di indicatori comportamentali a micro-scala (headway) con misure prestazionali a macro-scala (flusso, velocità, densità) produce progetti, piani di evacuazione e quadri normativi più accurati e adattabili, in particolare quando calibrati su dataset culturalmente e spazialmente specifici.
Review of analytical models and simulations of pedestrian behavior in open or confined spaces in normal and emergency situations
Halakouei, Mohammadreza
2024/2025
Abstract
This study presents a comprehensive review and synthesis of analytical models, empirical evidence, and simulation approaches for pedestrian behavior in open and confined spaces under normal and emergency conditions. Drawing on over 200 peer‑reviewed sources spanning 2000–2025, the research integrates quantitative data on walking speeds, spatial and temporal headways, density thresholds, design capacities, empirical flow capacities, and Level‑of‑Service (LOS) frameworks, with a focus on contextual variability across facility types and scenarios. Normal adult walking speeds range from 1.17 m/s (women) to 1.21 m/s (men) in open spaces, decreasing to 0.81–0.93 m/s in confined environments; elderly and mobility‑restricted populations exhibit speeds as low as 0.73 m/s. Headway metrics derived from Benz’s time–space methodology reveal spatial headways (hₛ) from 3.0 m in low‑density open spaces to < 0.5 m in emergency bottleneck flows, with corresponding time headways (hₜ) from ~2 s to < 0.5 s. Comparative analysis of Fruin’s original LOS criteria and contemporary adaptations shows density thresholds from ~0.27 p/m² (LOS A) to ≥ 1.37 p/m² (LOS F), with modified cut‑offs reflecting cultural, anthropometric, and comfort‑based considerations. Design capacity benchmarks indicate pedestrian facility thresholds highly dependent on national standards, ranging for sidewalks from 1,800–3,600 p/h/m at LOS C and for corridors from 1,320–2,400 p/h/m, while empirical flow studies record actual performance from 1.0–2.5 ped/s in bottlenecks, 0.6–0.8 ped/s on stairs, and velocity and throughput reductions of 22–47% in emergency conditions with luggage. These findings highlight divergence between normative and observed performance, reinforcing the need for locally calibrated parameters in planning and safety design. A taxonomy of modelling approaches—macroscopic, microscopic, empirical, analytical, and hybrid—is matched with their operational contexts within simulation platforms such as agent‑based models, cellular automata, and social force formulations. The review concludes that integrating micro‑scale behavioral indicators (headways) with macro‑scale performance measures (flow, speed, density) produces more accurate and adaptable design, evacuation planning, and policy frameworks, particularly when calibrated against culturally and spatially specific datasets.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/243375