This work presents the design, implementation, and validation of a water-assisted fluidic sampling system for the collection and analysis of particulate emissions generated by a hybrid rocket engine burning liquefying paraffin-based fuels. The system enables direct capture of plume-borne particulate under controlled and repeatable conditions, allow- ing quantitative and qualitative characterization through analytical techniques like SEM, FTIR, and TGA. A dedicated series of firing tests on the Vortex Flow Pancake (VFP) hybrid rocket was conducted to assess both the performance of the sampling line and the physicochemical properties of the collected particulate. This research is motivated by the increasing role of hybrid propulsion in modern space applications, together with the absence of experimental data on black carbon emissions from hybrid engines. Soot released into the stratosphere is of environmental relevance due to its long atmospheric lifetime, strong shortwave absorption, and ability to catalyze het- erogeneous reactions affecting ozone abundance and radiative forcing; this makes rocket- emitted soot particularly significant, since rockets are the only anthropogenic source of black carbon in the stratosphere. Despite these implications, current literature provides only uncertain, model-based estimates of Black Carbon Emission Indexes for hy- brid rockets, typically ranging between 20–60 g/kg, with no experimental validation. A major finding of this work is that a large fraction of unburnt fuel is ejected into the exhaust, forming a dominant paraffinic matrix in which soot and carbonaceous residues are embedded. Besides representing a significant combustion-efficiency loss, this heavy presence of unburnt fuel complicates soot characterization, as it masks, dilutes, or blends many of the spectral and morphological features typically used to identify soot. The combined use of FTIR, SEM, and TGA allowed the separation of these contributions and the identification of fuel-derived and soot-derived signatures. Preliminary quantitative results also show that the measured Black Carbon Emission In- dexes are lower than the limited values reported in literature, although available reference data remain sparse. These findings highlight the need for more comprehensive experi- mental datasets and standardized measurement methodologies to accurately assess the environmental impact of hybrid-rocket particulate emissions. Overall, this work provides one of the first experimental frameworks for direct soot sam- pling and quantification in hybrid rocket exhausts. The results demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed methodology and establish a foundation for future environmental assess- ments and improved modeling of particulate formation in emerging hybrid propulsion systems.
Il presente lavoro descrive la progettazione, realizzazione e validazione di un sistema flu- idico di campionamento assistito ad acqua, sviluppato per la raccolta e l’analisi del par- ticolato emesso da un motore ibrido alimentato con combustibili a base di paraffina. Il sistema consente la cattura diretta del particolato nella scia di scarico in condizioni con- trollate e ripetibili, permettendone la caratterizzazione qualitativa e quantitativa tramite tecniche analitiche quali SEM, FTIR e TGA. Una specifica campagna di prove sul motore ibrido Vortex Flow Pancake (VFP) è stata condotta per valutare le prestazioni della linea di campionamento e le proprietà chimico-fisiche del materiale raccolto. La ricerca è motivata dal crescente interesse verso la propulsione ibrida nelle applicazioni spaziali moderne e dalla totale assenza di dati sperimentali sulle emissioni di black carbon da motori ibridi. La fuliggine rilasciata in stratosfera riveste un ruolo ambientale rilevante a causa della lunga permanenza atmosferica, del forte assorbimento della radiazione solare e della capacità di catalizzare reazioni eterogenee che influenzano l’ozono e il bilancio ra- diativo. Ciò rende particolarmente significativo il contributo dei razzi, che rappresentano l’unica fonte antropogenica di black carbon in stratosfera. Nonostante ciò, in letteratura sono disponibili soltanto stime modellistiche incerte dell’Emission Index di black carbon (EIBC) per motori ibridi, tipicamente comprese tra 20 e 60 g/kg, senza alcuna validazione sperimentale. Un risultato rilevante di questo lavoro è l’osservazione che una frazione consistente di combustibile incombusto viene espulsa nello scarico, formando una matrice paraffinica dominante all’interno della quale sono inglobate fuliggine e residui carboniosi. Oltre a rappresentare una significativa perdita di efficienza, questa forte presenza di combustibile incombusto complica la caratterizzazione della fuliggine, poiché ne maschera o ne con- fonde molte firme spettroscopiche e morfologiche. L’utilizzo congiunto di FTIR, SEM e TGA ha permesso di distinguere i contributi del combustibile incombusto da quelli della componente carboniosa. I risultati quantitativi preliminari mostrano inoltre che gli Emission Index di black carbon misurati sono inferiori ai pochi valori riportati in letteratura, sebbene i dati disponibili siano estremamente limitati. Ciò evidenzia la necessità di ulteriori dati sperimentali e metodologie standardizzate per una corretta valutazione dell’impatto ambientale delle emissioni particellari dei motori ibridi. Nel complesso, questo lavoro rappresenta uno dei primi framework sperimentali per il campionamento e la quantificazione diretta della fuliggine nei gas di scarico di motori ibridi. I risultati dimostrano l’efficacia dell’approccio proposto e costituiscono una base per future valutazioni ambientali e per il miglioramento dei modelli di formazione del particolato nei sistemi di propulsione ibrida.
Experimental study of soot emissions on a VFP hybrid rocket engine
Spigarelli, Gianluca
2024/2025
Abstract
This work presents the design, implementation, and validation of a water-assisted fluidic sampling system for the collection and analysis of particulate emissions generated by a hybrid rocket engine burning liquefying paraffin-based fuels. The system enables direct capture of plume-borne particulate under controlled and repeatable conditions, allow- ing quantitative and qualitative characterization through analytical techniques like SEM, FTIR, and TGA. A dedicated series of firing tests on the Vortex Flow Pancake (VFP) hybrid rocket was conducted to assess both the performance of the sampling line and the physicochemical properties of the collected particulate. This research is motivated by the increasing role of hybrid propulsion in modern space applications, together with the absence of experimental data on black carbon emissions from hybrid engines. Soot released into the stratosphere is of environmental relevance due to its long atmospheric lifetime, strong shortwave absorption, and ability to catalyze het- erogeneous reactions affecting ozone abundance and radiative forcing; this makes rocket- emitted soot particularly significant, since rockets are the only anthropogenic source of black carbon in the stratosphere. Despite these implications, current literature provides only uncertain, model-based estimates of Black Carbon Emission Indexes for hy- brid rockets, typically ranging between 20–60 g/kg, with no experimental validation. A major finding of this work is that a large fraction of unburnt fuel is ejected into the exhaust, forming a dominant paraffinic matrix in which soot and carbonaceous residues are embedded. Besides representing a significant combustion-efficiency loss, this heavy presence of unburnt fuel complicates soot characterization, as it masks, dilutes, or blends many of the spectral and morphological features typically used to identify soot. The combined use of FTIR, SEM, and TGA allowed the separation of these contributions and the identification of fuel-derived and soot-derived signatures. Preliminary quantitative results also show that the measured Black Carbon Emission In- dexes are lower than the limited values reported in literature, although available reference data remain sparse. These findings highlight the need for more comprehensive experi- mental datasets and standardized measurement methodologies to accurately assess the environmental impact of hybrid-rocket particulate emissions. Overall, this work provides one of the first experimental frameworks for direct soot sam- pling and quantification in hybrid rocket exhausts. The results demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed methodology and establish a foundation for future environmental assess- ments and improved modeling of particulate formation in emerging hybrid propulsion systems.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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2025_12_Spigarelli_Tesi.pdf
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/247338