Among the available strategies for gene delivery, non-viral vectors (NVVs) represent a high-potential platform to introduce genetic material into target cells and achieve a therapeutic effect. NVVs offer an improved safety profile, with reduced cytotoxicity and immunogenicity, as well as a high cargo-loading capacity compared with alternative delivery approaches. In this context, 25 kDa branched polyethyleneimine (b-PEI 25kDa) is widely regarded as a gold standard, due to its high transfection efficiency (TE) across multiple cell lines and its strong buffering capacity, which supports endosomal escape after internalization. b-PEI is a cationic polymer (CP) rich in amine groups that are partially protonated at physiological pH, thereby conferring a significant positive charge density. Through a self-assembly mechanism driven by electrostatic interactions between the CP’s positive charges and the negatively charged phosphate groups of nucleic acids (NAs), b-PEI enables the formation of complexes, known as polyplexes, that can effectively protect and deliver the genetic payload to the desired site. Overall, TE depends on several factors, including NAs complexation, membrane binding and cellular uptake, endosomal escape, trafficking to the cytoplasm or nucleus, and cargo unpacking. To address gene delivery challenges and align performances with clinical requirements, the chemical modification of the native polymer structure represents a viable strategy. Since lipids are key components of the cell membrane, the introduction of hydrophobic moieties can enable additional interactions between polyplexes and the cell membrane, improving and facilitating payload delivery. Lipid-modification of b-PEI 25kDa with aliphatic chains has already been investigated; however, chain length and the degree of functionalization (DoF) must be carefully optimized, as they govern overall hydrophobicity, self-assembly behaviour, and the payload-release. Consequently, the aim of this thesis was to synthesize and characterize a library of lipid-substituted b-PEI 25kDa derivatives. Specifically, b-PEI was functionalized with saturated fatty acids bearing different chains length (hexanoic, lauric, and myristic acid) while maintaining low DoF (0.25 - 1 - 2%), with the goal of identifying the right balance between enhanced hydrophobic interactions while preserving carrier’s properties. This approach enables a systematic chemical comparison across chain lengths and DoF and allows, through different analytical techniques, the identification of the best performing conditions. Resulting formulations are undergoing an evaluation in their NAs complexation ability, transfection efficiency and cytotoxicity (CT), to select the most powerful candidates for future developments. From the preliminary results obtained, b-PEI 25kDa functionalized with lauroyl chloride at 1% DoF was identified as the best candidate. It combines indeed an effective hydrophobic/hydrophilic balance, an optimal reaction yield, and good solubility in aqueous media, which is a crucial aspect for subsequent steps of complexation with NAs.
Tra le diverse strategie disponibili di gene delivery, i vettori non virali (NVVs) rappresentano una soluzione ad alto potenziale per introdurre materiale genetico nelle cellule bersaglio e ottenere un effetto terapeutico. I NVVs offrono in profilo di sicurezza migliorato, con ridotta citotossicità e minore immunogenicità, oltre ad un’elevata capacità di carico rispetto ad approcci di delivery. In questo contesto, la polietilenimmine ramificata da 25 kDa (b-PEI 25kDa) è ampiamente considerata il gold standard tra i carrier non virali, grazie all’elevata efficienza di trasfezione (TE) su diverse linee cellulari e alla sua capacità tampone, che favorisce l’escape endosomiale dopo l’internalizzazione. b-PEI è un polimero cationico (CP) ricco di gruppi amminici che, a pH fisiologico, risultano parzialmente protonati, conferendo una significativa densità di carica positiva. Tramite un meccanismo di auto-assemblaggio guidato da interazioni elettrostatiche tra le cariche positive del CP e i gruppi fosfato negativi degli acidi nucleici (NAs), b-PEI consente la formazione di complessi, detti poliplessi, che in grado di proteggere e veicolare efficacemente il payload genetico al sito desiderato. La complessiva TE dipende principalmente da diversi fattori, tra cui la complessazione degli NA, legame alla membrana e uptake cellulare, escape endosomiale, traffico verso citoplasma o nucleo, e rilascio del carico. Per affrontare le criticità del gene delivery e allineare le performance ai requisiti clinici, la modifica chimica della struttura nativa del polimero rappresenta una strategia concreta. Poiché i lipidi sono componenti chiave della membrana cellulare, l’introduzione di moietà idrofobiche può abilitare interazioni aggiuntive tra poliplessi e membrana, migliorando e facilitando la consegna del gene. La modifica lipidica di b-PEI 25kDa con catene alifatiche è già stata investigata; tuttavia, lunghezza di catena e il grado di funzionalizzazione (DoF) devono essere ottimizzati, poiché governano l’idrofobicità complessiva, il comportamento di auto-assemblaggio e rilascio del payload. Di conseguenza, l’obiettivo di questa tesi è stato sintetizzare e caratterizzare una libreria di derivati di b-PEI 25kDa sostituiti con catene lipidiche. In particolare, b-PEI è stato funzionalizzato con acidi grassi saturi a diversa lunghezza di catena (acido esanoico, laurico e miristico) mantenendo bassi DoF (0.25 -1 -2%), con lo scopo di identificare il giusto bilanciamento tra aumento di interazioni idrofobiche e mantenimento delle proprietà del carrier. Questo approccio consente un confronto chimico sistematico in funzione di diverse lunghezze di catena e DoF e permette, tramite diverse tecniche analitiche, di individuare le condizioni con migliori performance. Le formulazioni ottenute sono in fase di valutazione per capacità di complessazione con acidi nucleici, TE, e citotossicità (CT), al fine di selezionare i candidati più performanti per sviluppi futuri. Dai risultati preliminari, il b-PEI 25kDa funzionalizzato con il cloruro di acido laurico a DoF di 1% è stato identificato come miglior candidato. Questo campione combina un contenuto idrofobico/idrofilico efficace, una resa di reazione ottimale e una buona solubilità in ambiente acquoso, aspetto cruciale per le successive fasi di complessazione con acidi nucleici.
Synthesis and characterization of aliphatic lipid-modified 25 kDa bPEI for non-viral gene delivery applications
Guidetti, Camilla
2024/2025
Abstract
Among the available strategies for gene delivery, non-viral vectors (NVVs) represent a high-potential platform to introduce genetic material into target cells and achieve a therapeutic effect. NVVs offer an improved safety profile, with reduced cytotoxicity and immunogenicity, as well as a high cargo-loading capacity compared with alternative delivery approaches. In this context, 25 kDa branched polyethyleneimine (b-PEI 25kDa) is widely regarded as a gold standard, due to its high transfection efficiency (TE) across multiple cell lines and its strong buffering capacity, which supports endosomal escape after internalization. b-PEI is a cationic polymer (CP) rich in amine groups that are partially protonated at physiological pH, thereby conferring a significant positive charge density. Through a self-assembly mechanism driven by electrostatic interactions between the CP’s positive charges and the negatively charged phosphate groups of nucleic acids (NAs), b-PEI enables the formation of complexes, known as polyplexes, that can effectively protect and deliver the genetic payload to the desired site. Overall, TE depends on several factors, including NAs complexation, membrane binding and cellular uptake, endosomal escape, trafficking to the cytoplasm or nucleus, and cargo unpacking. To address gene delivery challenges and align performances with clinical requirements, the chemical modification of the native polymer structure represents a viable strategy. Since lipids are key components of the cell membrane, the introduction of hydrophobic moieties can enable additional interactions between polyplexes and the cell membrane, improving and facilitating payload delivery. Lipid-modification of b-PEI 25kDa with aliphatic chains has already been investigated; however, chain length and the degree of functionalization (DoF) must be carefully optimized, as they govern overall hydrophobicity, self-assembly behaviour, and the payload-release. Consequently, the aim of this thesis was to synthesize and characterize a library of lipid-substituted b-PEI 25kDa derivatives. Specifically, b-PEI was functionalized with saturated fatty acids bearing different chains length (hexanoic, lauric, and myristic acid) while maintaining low DoF (0.25 - 1 - 2%), with the goal of identifying the right balance between enhanced hydrophobic interactions while preserving carrier’s properties. This approach enables a systematic chemical comparison across chain lengths and DoF and allows, through different analytical techniques, the identification of the best performing conditions. Resulting formulations are undergoing an evaluation in their NAs complexation ability, transfection efficiency and cytotoxicity (CT), to select the most powerful candidates for future developments. From the preliminary results obtained, b-PEI 25kDa functionalized with lauroyl chloride at 1% DoF was identified as the best candidate. It combines indeed an effective hydrophobic/hydrophilic balance, an optimal reaction yield, and good solubility in aqueous media, which is a crucial aspect for subsequent steps of complexation with NAs.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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2026_03_Guidetti_Thesis.pdf
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Descrizione: Thesis
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2026_03_Guidetti_ExecutiveSummary.pdf
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Descrizione: Executive Summary
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/251100