Single-photon detectors have become indispensable instruments across a wide spectrum of scientific and industrial applications. In materials science and biology, they enable the measurement of ultrafast fluorescence decays with high sensitivity; in range finding systems, they allow precise time-of-flight measurements of laser echoes; and in quantum optics, they form the technological backbone of emerging photonic technologies. Modern single-photon detection technologies are primarily dominated by Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs) and Superconducting Nanowire Single-Photon Detectors (SNSPDs). While SNSPDs can deliver outstanding performance in terms of photon detection efficiency, timing resolution, and noise, they depend on superconducting materials and therefore require cryogenic cooling systems, which are bulky and costly, restricting their use to laboratory environments. SPADs, in contrast, stand out for their compactness, robustness, and compatibility with standard microelectronic fabrication. These features make them practical for integration in scalable systems. In the visible spectral range and up to approximately 1 μm wavelength, silicon SPADs can be fabricated in standard CMOS processes, allowing monolithic integration with dedicated electronics into large-scale arrays. Beyond this limit, at longer wavelengths, alternative materials such as III–V compounds or germanium can be employed. By hybridizing these SPADs onto dedicated Read-Out Integrated Circuits (ROICs), compact and high-performance detectors can be realized. The extension of SPAD technologies into the infrared region is driven by several advantages, operation at longer wavelengths benefits from reduced scattering and absorption in various media, increased transmission efficiency in both fiber and free-space channels, and improved eye-safety conditions, which permit the use of higher optical power levels. Furthermore, the infrared domain offers reduced background noise under ambient illumination and opens new opportunities for advanced imaging and sensing applications. These combined factors make the NIR and SWIR spectral ranges strategically important for the development of next-generation single-photon detection systems. A further distinguishing feature of SPADs is their ability to operate in time-gated mode, whereby they can be rapidly switched from OFF to ON within a few hundred picoseconds. This capability allows precise temporal selection of photons, effective noise suppression, and dynamic range extension, as well as enabling high-resolution time-of-flight measurements. This thesis builds upon these strengths to explore the design of advanced Read-Out Integrated Circuits and systems for high time-resolution near-infrared SPAD arrays, paving the way for future developments in next-generation photonics, imaging, and communication technologies. The work follows two complementary directions: i) the realization of single-pixel and array cameras based on InGaAs/InP SPADs, with the objective of extending Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) imaging into the Short-Wave Infrared Range (SWIR); ii) the development of high-throughput single-photon detectors for quantum communication applications, in particular Quantum Key Distribution (QKD). This involves the design of an 8×8 silicon SPAD array operating as a single high-rate detector with an aggregate count rate of 2 Gcps and operating at 800 nm wavelength, as well as the design of a compact single-pixel ROIC capable of operating InGaAs/InP SPADs at gigahertz gating frequencies for QKD at 1550 nm wavelength in both fiber-based and free-space scenarios.
I rivelatori di singolo fotone sono diventati strumenti indispensabili in un ampio spettro di applicazioni scientifiche e industriali. Nella scienza dei materiali e nella biologia, permettono la misurazione di decadimenti di fluorescenza ultraveloci con un'elevata sensibilità; nei sistemi di telemetria, consentono misurazioni precise del tempo di volo (time-of-flight) degli echi laser; e nell'ottica quantistica, costituiscono la spina dorsale tecnologica delle emergenti tecnologie fotoniche. Le moderne tecnologie di rivelazione di singolo fotone sono dominate principalmente dai diodi a valanga a singolo fotone (SPAD, Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes) e dai rivelatori a nanofilo superconduttore a singolo fotone (SNSPD, Superconducting Nanowire Single-Photon Detectors). Sebbene gli SNSPD possano offrire prestazioni eccezionali in termini di efficienza di rilevamento dei fotoni, risoluzione temporale e rumore, essi dipendono da materiali superconduttori e richiedono quindi sistemi di raffreddamento criogenico, che risultano ingombranti e costosi, limitando il loro utilizzo agli ambienti di laboratorio. Gli SPAD, al contrario, si distinguono per la loro compattezza, robustezza e compatibilità con la fabbricazione microelettronica standard. Queste caratteristiche li rendono pratici per l'integrazione in sistemi scalabili. Nella gamma spettrale del visibile e fino a circa 1 μm di lunghezza d'onda, gli SPAD al silicio possono essere fabbricati in processi CMOS standard, consentendo l'integrazione monolitica con l'elettronica dedicata in array su larga scala. Oltre questo limite, a lunghezze d'onda superiori, possono essere impiegati materiali alternativi come i composti III-V o il germanio. Ibridando questi SPAD su circuiti integrati di lettura dedicati (ROIC, Read-Out Integrated Circuits), è possibile realizzare rivelatori compatti e ad alte prestazioni. L'estensione delle tecnologie SPAD nella regione dell'infrarosso è guidata da diversi vantaggi: l'operatività a lunghezze d'onda maggiori beneficia di una riduzione dello scattering e dell'assorbimento in vari mezzi, di una maggiore efficienza di trasmissione sia in fibra che in canali in spazio libero, e di migliori condizioni di sicurezza oculare (eye-safety), che permettono l'uso di livelli di potenza ottica più elevati. Inoltre, il dominio dell'infrarosso offre un rumore di fondo ridotto sotto illuminazione ambientale e apre nuove opportunità per applicazioni avanzate di imaging e rilevamento. Questi fattori combinati rendono le gamme spettrali NIR e SWIR strategicamente importanti per lo sviluppo di sistemi di rivelazione di singolo fotone di prossima generazione. Un'ulteriore caratteristica distintiva degli SPAD è la loro capacità di operare in modalità time-gated, attraverso la quale possono essere commutati rapidamente da OFF a ON entro poche centinaia di picosecondi. Questa capacità consente una precisa selezione temporale dei fotoni, un'efficace soppressione del rumore e l'estensione della gamma dinamica, oltre a permettere misurazioni del tempo di volo ad alta risoluzione. Questa tesi si basa su questi punti di forza per esplorare la progettazione di circuiti integrati di lettura e sistemi avanzati per array di SPAD nel vicino infrarosso ad alta risoluzione temporale, aprendo la strada a futuri sviluppi nelle tecnologie fotoniche, di imaging e di comunicazione di prossima generazione. Il lavoro segue due direzioni complementari: i) la realizzazione di fotocamere a singolo pixel e ad array basate su SPAD in InGaAs/InP, con l'obiettivo di estendere l'imaging Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) nella gamma dell'infrarosso a onde corte (SWIR); ii) lo sviluppo di rivelatori di singolo fotone ad alta velocità di elaborazione (high-throughput) per applicazioni di comunicazione quantistica, in particolare per la distribuzione a chiave quantistica (QKD). Ciò comporta la progettazione di un array di SPAD al silicio 8x8 operante come un singolo rivelatore ad alta velocità con un tasso di conteggio aggregato di 2 Gcps a una lunghezza d'onda di 800 nm, nonché la progettazione di un ROIC a singolo pixel compatto in grado di far operare gli SPAD in InGaAs/InP a frequenze di gating nell'ordine dei gigahertz per la QKD a una lunghezza d'onda di 1550 nm, sia in scenari basati su fibra che in spazio libero.
Read-Out Integrated Circuits and systems for high time resolution near infrared SPAD arrays
Herrera Pesantes, Kevin Andres
2025/2026
Abstract
Single-photon detectors have become indispensable instruments across a wide spectrum of scientific and industrial applications. In materials science and biology, they enable the measurement of ultrafast fluorescence decays with high sensitivity; in range finding systems, they allow precise time-of-flight measurements of laser echoes; and in quantum optics, they form the technological backbone of emerging photonic technologies. Modern single-photon detection technologies are primarily dominated by Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes (SPADs) and Superconducting Nanowire Single-Photon Detectors (SNSPDs). While SNSPDs can deliver outstanding performance in terms of photon detection efficiency, timing resolution, and noise, they depend on superconducting materials and therefore require cryogenic cooling systems, which are bulky and costly, restricting their use to laboratory environments. SPADs, in contrast, stand out for their compactness, robustness, and compatibility with standard microelectronic fabrication. These features make them practical for integration in scalable systems. In the visible spectral range and up to approximately 1 μm wavelength, silicon SPADs can be fabricated in standard CMOS processes, allowing monolithic integration with dedicated electronics into large-scale arrays. Beyond this limit, at longer wavelengths, alternative materials such as III–V compounds or germanium can be employed. By hybridizing these SPADs onto dedicated Read-Out Integrated Circuits (ROICs), compact and high-performance detectors can be realized. The extension of SPAD technologies into the infrared region is driven by several advantages, operation at longer wavelengths benefits from reduced scattering and absorption in various media, increased transmission efficiency in both fiber and free-space channels, and improved eye-safety conditions, which permit the use of higher optical power levels. Furthermore, the infrared domain offers reduced background noise under ambient illumination and opens new opportunities for advanced imaging and sensing applications. These combined factors make the NIR and SWIR spectral ranges strategically important for the development of next-generation single-photon detection systems. A further distinguishing feature of SPADs is their ability to operate in time-gated mode, whereby they can be rapidly switched from OFF to ON within a few hundred picoseconds. This capability allows precise temporal selection of photons, effective noise suppression, and dynamic range extension, as well as enabling high-resolution time-of-flight measurements. This thesis builds upon these strengths to explore the design of advanced Read-Out Integrated Circuits and systems for high time-resolution near-infrared SPAD arrays, paving the way for future developments in next-generation photonics, imaging, and communication technologies. The work follows two complementary directions: i) the realization of single-pixel and array cameras based on InGaAs/InP SPADs, with the objective of extending Non-Line-of-Sight (NLOS) imaging into the Short-Wave Infrared Range (SWIR); ii) the development of high-throughput single-photon detectors for quantum communication applications, in particular Quantum Key Distribution (QKD). This involves the design of an 8×8 silicon SPAD array operating as a single high-rate detector with an aggregate count rate of 2 Gcps and operating at 800 nm wavelength, as well as the design of a compact single-pixel ROIC capable of operating InGaAs/InP SPADs at gigahertz gating frequencies for QKD at 1550 nm wavelength in both fiber-based and free-space scenarios.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/254537