Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) is the most widely used, refined and cost-effective fabrication process. CMOS compatible semiconductors include silicon and germanium, and photodetectors made with this technology can detect photons up to 1.8 µm. However, many applications such as environmental sensing and spectroscopy would benefit from detection of photons above 2 µm wavelength. In recent years, the development of Germanium Tin (GeSn) alloy has attracted growing attention, thanks to its tunable bandgap and compatibility with standard CMOS processes. With enough Sn content, the compound can be exploited for detecting photons in Short-Wave InfraRed (SWIR) and Mid-InfraRed (MIR) ranges. This would provide CMOS process an absorptive material to extend absorption range beyond the germanium cut off. Despite this, GeSn epitaxy technology is still immature: this leads to defective material, which results in enhanced photodetector noise. This constrains the development of efficient single photon detectors based on this compound. Nowadays instead, state-of-the-art SPADs for SWIR range are based on III-V semiconductors, such as InGaAs/InP SPADs. Despite having good performance, their fabrication is not CMOS compatible and custom workflow must be exploited for their manufacturing, lacking the versatility of CMOS process abilities. For this reason, ad-hoc back-end fabrications can be advised in order to target specific performance increase, such as optical crosstalk reduction in SPADs arrays or enhancement of photon collection efficiency. Finally, many applications and measurements techniques take advantage of single photon detection in SWIR through InGaAs/InP SPADs. For instance, TimeCorrelated Single Photon Counting (TCSPC) aims at measuring faint signals as a function on time, allowing to extract time-related information from radiation. The versatility of such technique allows TCSPC to be implemented in a wide range of measurements, from integrated optics to biomedical sensing.
Il Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) è il processo di microfabbricazione più diffuso, perfezionato ed economico. I semiconduttori compatibili con la tecnologia CMOS includono il silicio e il germanio, e i fotorivelatori realizzati con questa tecnologia possono rilevare fotoni fino a 1.8 µm. Tuttavia, molte applicazioni come il rilevamento ambientale e la spettroscopia trarrebbero beneficio dalla rivelazione di fotoni con lunghezza d'onda superiore a 2 µm. Negli ultimi anni, lo sviluppo della lega di Germanio-Stagno (GeSn) ha attirato una crescente attenzione, grazie alla sua bandgap regolabile e alla compatibilità con i processi CMOS standard. Con un contenuto di Sn sufficiente, il composto può essere sfruttato per rilevare fotoni negli spettri dell'infrarosso a onde corte (SWIR) e del medio infrarosso (MIR). Ciò fornirebbe al processo CMOS un materiale assorbente in grado di estendere l'intervallo di assorbimento oltre il limite del germanio. Nonostante ciò, la tecnologia epitassiale del GeSn è ancora immatura: questo porta a materiale difettoso, che si traduce in un aumento del rumore del fotorivelatore. Tale limite vincola lo sviluppo di efficienti rivelatori a singolo fotone basati su questo composto. Attualmente, invece, gli SPAD (Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes) allo stato dell'arte per l'intervallo SWIR sono basati su semiconduttori III-V, come gli SPAD in InGaAs/InP. Pur offrendo buone prestazioni, la loro fabbricazione non è compatibile con il processo CMOS ed è necessario utilizzare processi personalizzati per la loro produzione, perdendo così la versatilità e ottimizzazione tipica dei processi CMOS. Per questo motivo, fabbricazioni back-end ad-hoc possono essere utilizzate al fine di mirare a specifici incrementi prestazionali, come la riduzione del crosstalk ottico negli array di SPAD o il miglioramento dell'efficienza di raccolta dei fotoni. Infine, molte applicazioni e tecniche di misurazione traggono vantaggio dalla rivelazione di singoli fotoni nello SWIR tramite SPAD InGaAs/InP. Ad esempio, il Time-Correlated Single Photon Counting (TCSPC) mira a misurare segnali deboli in funzione del tempo, permettendo di estrarre informazioni temporali dalla radiazione. La versatilità di tale tecnica consente l'implementazione del TCSPC in un'ampia gamma di misurazioni, dall'ottica integrata al rilevamento biomedico.
Novel avalanche photodiodes for quantum and sensing infrared applications
FINAZZI, LORENZO
2025/2026
Abstract
Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) is the most widely used, refined and cost-effective fabrication process. CMOS compatible semiconductors include silicon and germanium, and photodetectors made with this technology can detect photons up to 1.8 µm. However, many applications such as environmental sensing and spectroscopy would benefit from detection of photons above 2 µm wavelength. In recent years, the development of Germanium Tin (GeSn) alloy has attracted growing attention, thanks to its tunable bandgap and compatibility with standard CMOS processes. With enough Sn content, the compound can be exploited for detecting photons in Short-Wave InfraRed (SWIR) and Mid-InfraRed (MIR) ranges. This would provide CMOS process an absorptive material to extend absorption range beyond the germanium cut off. Despite this, GeSn epitaxy technology is still immature: this leads to defective material, which results in enhanced photodetector noise. This constrains the development of efficient single photon detectors based on this compound. Nowadays instead, state-of-the-art SPADs for SWIR range are based on III-V semiconductors, such as InGaAs/InP SPADs. Despite having good performance, their fabrication is not CMOS compatible and custom workflow must be exploited for their manufacturing, lacking the versatility of CMOS process abilities. For this reason, ad-hoc back-end fabrications can be advised in order to target specific performance increase, such as optical crosstalk reduction in SPADs arrays or enhancement of photon collection efficiency. Finally, many applications and measurements techniques take advantage of single photon detection in SWIR through InGaAs/InP SPADs. For instance, TimeCorrelated Single Photon Counting (TCSPC) aims at measuring faint signals as a function on time, allowing to extract time-related information from radiation. The versatility of such technique allows TCSPC to be implemented in a wide range of measurements, from integrated optics to biomedical sensing.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/254577