The global seek for decarbonization along with circular economy aims are encouraging a rethinking of conventional way of building, starting from a revaluation of conventional structural systems through more environmentally conscious solutions. Among bio-based materials, timber is suitable for sustainable design due to its renewable origin, carbon sequestration capacity, low embodied carbon, compatibility with prefabrication, and functional reusability and/or recyclability. However, timber use in high seismicity areas is still challenging, due to its limited ductility – compared to steel or reinforced concrete – and, consequently, brittle failure modes. Therefore, the close link among mechanical performance and reusability of timber structures highlight the importance of an integrated structural and environmental design; connections design, especially, is of paramount relevance, given that they play a crucial role both in dissipating seismic energy and in enabling demountability and consequently reusability at the end of service life. Within this thesis, a cutting-edge CDDR (Concentrated Damage, Demountability, and Reusability) approach – a holistic design methodology that seeks for seismic resilience and environmental sustainability of the solutions – is proposed, developed and validated. The CDDR concept seeks to concentrate damage within specific, replaceable components – primarily the connections – while preserving the integrity of the main structural members where connections are designed to avoid inelastic deformations, allowing either for reuse at the end of service life, either for post-seismic event repair. Thus, the system is designed to behave in a controlled manner during seismic events, facilitating disassembly, repair, maintenance, replacement, and reuse of undamaged elements, aiming to reduce environmental impact throughout the whole life cycle. The thesis starts with comparative assessment of existing conventional and hybrid structural systems – comprising reinforced concrete, steel, timber, hybrids – from cradle-to-cradle Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis perspective. This phase outcomes evaluates average values of embodied carbon, end-of-life management strategies, recyclability shares, identifying environmental hotspots and topics to be further explored, as disassembly potential; it is shown that timber-hybrid systems provide optimal balance among mechanical performances and environmental sustainability, subsequent to detailed connection design. This initial phase establishes the conceptual and methodological basis for the development of the CDDR framework. Subsequently, the research focuses on the mechanical development of the CDDR principle, with particular emphasis on timber–steel beam–column joints. Nonlinear numerical simulations are conducted to identify configurations capable of concentrating damage within ductile steel elements while maintaining elastic behaviour in the timber components. The analyses explore key mechanical parameters such as stiffness, slip behaviour, cyclic degradation, and load transfer mechanisms, defining a structural hierarchy that promotes ductile and replaceable failure modes. These numerical findings guide a two-level experimental program, including push-out tests designed to evaluate local slip, stiffness degradation, and demountability under cyclic loading. The results allow the definition of Environmental Sustainability Limit States – quantitative slip thresholds beyond which demountability and reusability are compromised – thus integrating structural mechanics with circular design principles. Building on these insights, a series of full-scale hybrid joint tests are carried out to validate the CDDR approach under alternate loading conditions. The experimental campaign investigates energy dissipation capacity, hysteretic response, residual deformations, and post-event reparability of the hybrid joints. The results confirm that by concentrating damage within replaceable steel connectors, it is possible to achieve a controlled ductile response while providing sufficient rotational stiffness to the joint and load-bearing capacity of the system. These findings demonstrate that the CDDR concept can effectively concile the traditionally conflicting objectives of seismic resilience and circularity in structural design. To strengthen the link between structural and environmental performance, the research finally introduces a novel evaluation parameter, the Stiffness Warming Potential (SWP). This indicator integrates effective bending stiffness with the Global Warming Potential (GWP), enabling multi-criteria optimization of hybrid structural components. The SWP offers a new decision-making tool for designers, allowing a quantitative balance between stiffness, embodied carbon, and reusability potential, and contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of sustainability in structural engineering. The overall findings of the research demonstrate that detailed connection design, supported by the CDDR approach, enables the development of seismic-resistant, demountable, and reusable timber–hybrid structures. This methodological advancement provides a pathway towards integration of structural and environmental assessments, relying on LCA analysis as a decision-making tool during the whole building’s life cycle. Therefore, this research establishes the bedrock for next generation of structural systems, intrinsically designed for circularity, emphasising the potentials of engineered timber products by reuse, through focus on connections design.
La crescente spinta globale verso la decarbonizzazione, insieme agli obiettivi dell’economia circolare, rivolge lo sguardo alla promozione di un ripensamento delle modalità convenzionali di costruzione, a partire da una rivalutazione dei sistemi strutturali tradizionali attraverso soluzioni più consapevoli dal punto di vista ambientale. Tra i materiali che derivano da fonti rinnovabili il legno risulta particolarmente idoneo alla progettazione sostenibile grazie alla sua capacità di sequestrare carbonio (carbonio biogenico), alla quantità ridotta di carbonio necessaria per le lavorazioni (carbonio incorporato), alla compatibilità con la prefabbricazione e alla possibilità di riuso funzionale e/o riciclo. Tuttavia, l’impiego del legno in aree ad elevata sismicità presenta ancora criticità, dovute alla sua limitata duttilità – rispetto ad acciaio o calcestruzzo armato – e, conseguentemente, alla propensione a meccanismi di collasso fragile. La correlazione tra prestazioni meccaniche e possibile riutilizzo delle strutture in legno evidenzia l’importanza di una progettazione integrata a livello strutturale e ambientale; in particolare, la progettazione dei collegamenti riveste un ruolo di primaria importanza poiché questi sono determinanti sia nella dissipazione dei carichi sismici, sia nel consentire la facilità di smontaggio e, quindi, il riutilizzo a fine vita utile. All’interno di questa tesi viene proposto, sviluppato e validato l’approccio CDDR (Concentrated Damage, Demountability, and Reusability), una metodologia di progettazione olistica finalizzata a coniugare resilienza sismica e sostenibilità ambientale delle soluzioni. Il concetto CDDR mira a concentrare il danneggiamento in componenti specifici e sostituibili, preservando l’integrità degli elementi strutturali principali, i quali vengono progettati in modo da evitare deformazioni plastiche, consentendo il riutilizzo a fine vita utile oppure la riparazione post-evento sismico. Il sistema risulta quindi concepito con un comportamento controllato durante le sollecitazioni sismiche, facilitando smontaggio, riparazione, manutenzione, sostituzione e riuso degli elementi non danneggiati, riducendo l’impatto ambientale lungo l’intero ciclo di vita. La tesi si apre con una valutazione comparativa dei sistemi strutturali convenzionali e ibridi – comprendenti calcestruzzo armato, acciaio, legno e ibridi – dal punto di vista di un’analisi LCA (Life Cycle Assessment) “cradle-to-cradle”. Gli esiti di questa fase quantificano valori medi di carbonio incorporato, strategie di gestione di fine vita, quote di riciclabilità, identificando hotspot ambientali il potenziale derivante dalla facilità di disassemblaggio; viene inoltre evidenziato come i sistemi ibridi a base di legno possano offrire un bilanciamento ottimale tra prestazioni meccaniche e sostenibilità ambientale, a condizione di una progettazione dettagliata dei collegamenti. Questa fase iniziale definisce la base concettuale e metodologica per lo sviluppo dell’approccio CDDR. Successivamente, la ricerca si concentra sullo sviluppo del principio CDDR, con particolare attenzione ai nodi trave–pilastro in legno–acciaio. Vengono condotte simulazioni numeriche non lineari per individuare configurazioni in grado di concentrare il danneggiamento in elementi duttili di acciaio, mantenendo un comportamento elastico nei componenti in legno. Le analisi approfondiscono parametri meccanici chiave quali rigidezza, comportamento nelle interfacce di scorrimento, degradazione ciclica e meccanismi di trasferimento degli sforzi, definendo una gerarchia strutturale che favorisca modalità di collasso duttili e sostituibili. Tali risultati numerici guidano programma sperimentale su due livelli, includendo prove push-out mirate a valutare lo scorrimento locale, la degradazione della rigidezza e la facilità di smontaggio successivamente all’applicazione di carichi ciclici. I risultati consentono la definizione degli Stati Limite di Sostenibilità Ambientali (Environmental Sustainability Limit States – ESLS), ovvero soglie quantitative oltre le quali facilità di smontaggio e riutilizzo risultano compromesse, integrando così la risposta strutturale con i principi della progettazione circolare. Sulla base di tali evidenze, viene eseguita una serie di prove su nodi ibridi a scala reale per validare l’approccio CDDR in condizioni di carico alternato. La campagna sperimentale analizza capacità di dissipazione energetica, comportamento isteretico, deformazioni residue e riparabilità post-evento dei collegamenti ibridi. I risultati confermano che, concentrando il danno in connettori di acciaio sostituibili e preservando gli elementi strutturali primari, è possibile ottenere una risposta duttilmente controllata evitando perdite di rigidezza globale e di capacità portante del sistema. Queste evidenze dimostrano che il concetto CDDR può conciliare efficacemente due obiettivi tradizionalmente in conflitto nella progettazione strutturale: resilienza sismica e circolarità. Per rafforzare ulteriormente il legame tra prestazioni strutturali e ambientali, la ricerca introduce infine un nuovo parametro di valutazione, lo Stiffness Warming Potential (SWP). Tale indicatore integra la rigidezza flessionale efficace con il Potenziale di Riscaldamento Globale (Global Warming Potential – GWP), permettendo un’ottimizzazione multi-criteriale dei componenti strutturali ibridi. Lo SWP fornisce un nuovo strumento di supporto alle decisioni progettuali, consentendo un bilanciamento quantitativo tra rigidezza, carbonio incorporato e potenziale di riutilizzo, e contribuendo a una maggiore comprensione della sostenibilità nell’ingegneria strutturale. Nel complesso, i risultati dimostrano che una progettazione accurata dei collegamenti, supportata dall’approccio CDDR, consente lo sviluppo di strutture ibride in legno resistenti all’azione sismica, smontabili e riutilizzabili. Questo avanzamento metodologico offre una traiettoria concreta verso l’integrazione tra valutazioni strutturali e ambientali, facendo leva sull’analisi LCA come strumento decisionale lungo l’intero ciclo di vita dell’edificio. Di conseguenza, vengono poste le basi per una nuova generazione di sistemi strutturali intrinsecamente progettati per la circolarità, valorizzando le potenzialità dei prodotti in legno ingegnerizzato tramite il riutilizzo, con un focus specifico sulla progettazione dei collegamenti.
Connections in timber-hybrid buildings: a combined sustainable and seismic-resistant design
CORTI, LAURA
2025/2026
Abstract
The global seek for decarbonization along with circular economy aims are encouraging a rethinking of conventional way of building, starting from a revaluation of conventional structural systems through more environmentally conscious solutions. Among bio-based materials, timber is suitable for sustainable design due to its renewable origin, carbon sequestration capacity, low embodied carbon, compatibility with prefabrication, and functional reusability and/or recyclability. However, timber use in high seismicity areas is still challenging, due to its limited ductility – compared to steel or reinforced concrete – and, consequently, brittle failure modes. Therefore, the close link among mechanical performance and reusability of timber structures highlight the importance of an integrated structural and environmental design; connections design, especially, is of paramount relevance, given that they play a crucial role both in dissipating seismic energy and in enabling demountability and consequently reusability at the end of service life. Within this thesis, a cutting-edge CDDR (Concentrated Damage, Demountability, and Reusability) approach – a holistic design methodology that seeks for seismic resilience and environmental sustainability of the solutions – is proposed, developed and validated. The CDDR concept seeks to concentrate damage within specific, replaceable components – primarily the connections – while preserving the integrity of the main structural members where connections are designed to avoid inelastic deformations, allowing either for reuse at the end of service life, either for post-seismic event repair. Thus, the system is designed to behave in a controlled manner during seismic events, facilitating disassembly, repair, maintenance, replacement, and reuse of undamaged elements, aiming to reduce environmental impact throughout the whole life cycle. The thesis starts with comparative assessment of existing conventional and hybrid structural systems – comprising reinforced concrete, steel, timber, hybrids – from cradle-to-cradle Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis perspective. This phase outcomes evaluates average values of embodied carbon, end-of-life management strategies, recyclability shares, identifying environmental hotspots and topics to be further explored, as disassembly potential; it is shown that timber-hybrid systems provide optimal balance among mechanical performances and environmental sustainability, subsequent to detailed connection design. This initial phase establishes the conceptual and methodological basis for the development of the CDDR framework. Subsequently, the research focuses on the mechanical development of the CDDR principle, with particular emphasis on timber–steel beam–column joints. Nonlinear numerical simulations are conducted to identify configurations capable of concentrating damage within ductile steel elements while maintaining elastic behaviour in the timber components. The analyses explore key mechanical parameters such as stiffness, slip behaviour, cyclic degradation, and load transfer mechanisms, defining a structural hierarchy that promotes ductile and replaceable failure modes. These numerical findings guide a two-level experimental program, including push-out tests designed to evaluate local slip, stiffness degradation, and demountability under cyclic loading. The results allow the definition of Environmental Sustainability Limit States – quantitative slip thresholds beyond which demountability and reusability are compromised – thus integrating structural mechanics with circular design principles. Building on these insights, a series of full-scale hybrid joint tests are carried out to validate the CDDR approach under alternate loading conditions. The experimental campaign investigates energy dissipation capacity, hysteretic response, residual deformations, and post-event reparability of the hybrid joints. The results confirm that by concentrating damage within replaceable steel connectors, it is possible to achieve a controlled ductile response while providing sufficient rotational stiffness to the joint and load-bearing capacity of the system. These findings demonstrate that the CDDR concept can effectively concile the traditionally conflicting objectives of seismic resilience and circularity in structural design. To strengthen the link between structural and environmental performance, the research finally introduces a novel evaluation parameter, the Stiffness Warming Potential (SWP). This indicator integrates effective bending stiffness with the Global Warming Potential (GWP), enabling multi-criteria optimization of hybrid structural components. The SWP offers a new decision-making tool for designers, allowing a quantitative balance between stiffness, embodied carbon, and reusability potential, and contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of sustainability in structural engineering. The overall findings of the research demonstrate that detailed connection design, supported by the CDDR approach, enables the development of seismic-resistant, demountable, and reusable timber–hybrid structures. This methodological advancement provides a pathway towards integration of structural and environmental assessments, relying on LCA analysis as a decision-making tool during the whole building’s life cycle. Therefore, this research establishes the bedrock for next generation of structural systems, intrinsically designed for circularity, emphasising the potentials of engineered timber products by reuse, through focus on connections design.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/255258