A Charge Density Wave (CDW) is a broken-symmetry phase characterized by the low temperature stabilization of a Periodic Lattice Distortion (PLD) through the opening of energy gaps at in the electronic band structure, and by a periodic spatial modulation of the electronic density. It was theoretically predicted long before any experimental observation by R. E. Peierls. The Peierls model describes the CDW phase transition for a one-dimensional (1D) metallic chain of atoms, but fails whenever systems with higher dimensionality are considered. However, CDWs are experimentally observed in many materials: in quasi-one-dimensional systems (q1D) such as Transition Metal Trichalcogenides (TMT), blue bronzes and Krogmann salts; but also in bi-dimensional materials (2D) such as Transition Metal Dichalcogenides (TMD), high temperature superconductors (cuprates) and Kagome metals. Many of the q1D systems can be understood within the one-dimensional Peierls model, while 2D CDWs challenge this simple picture and require different theoretical explanations. In general, there is agreement in saying that a strong momentum dependent electron-phonon coupling is needed to stabilize CDW phases, but their origin is still largely debated. This delicate relation between the electrons and the lattice is ultimately what has fascinated scientists for more than fifty years. In this thesis, I present our investigation of the CDW phase of two materials with different dimensionality: ZrTe₃, a TMT with q1D properties, and 1T-TaSe₂, a TMD with 2D character; mainly employing photoemission spectroscopy. Angle Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy (ARPES) is a powerful technique: by shining ultraviolet light on the sample and measuring energy and emission angle of the photoemitted electrons, ARPES can detect the electronic structure of the material with energy and momentum resolutions, revealing its evolution across the CDW phase transition. Time-resolved-ARPES (trARPES) also allows to investigate the electronic dynamics and helps separating in the time domain the different degrees of freedom involved in the phase transition. The trARPES technique exploits the so-called pump-probe scheme, where two ultrashort laser pulses are employed: the pump drives the investigated material out of equilibrium, while the probe photoemits electrons. By varying the delay between them, it is possible to reconstruct the full excitation-relaxation dynamics of the system. We complemented photoemission measurements with broadband time-resolved optical reflectivity (trOR) measurements and Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations. The first material presented is ZrTe₃, which belongs to the family of transition metal trichalcogenides, a group of compounds that share a similar crystal structure and q1D properties. They have MX₃ formula units with M being a transition metal (Ti, Zr, Nb, Hf and Ta), and X a chalcogen atom (S, Se and Te). They are made of weakly bound one-dimensional prismatic chains along the b-axis direction. ZrTe₃ is a unique member because its Fermi surface comprises both a 3D hole-like pocket centered at Γ and q1D bands at the Brillouin zone edges, placing this material at the crossroad of different dimensionalities. Extensive ARPES studies have shown that the CDW phase, setting in at 63 K, is compatible with the one-dimensional Peierls model. However, some of the observed changes in the band structure with temperature suggest the need for a larger view. We performed trARPES measurements, revealing interesting dynamical features: i) a transient photo-induced shift of the whole band structure, and (ii) the excitation of coherent oscillations compatible with two A_g phonon modes. Our results suggest a strong electron-phonon coupling that plays a central role in CDW formation. Supported by theoretical calculations, we can disentangle the electronic and lattice contributions to the CDW transition. The second material presented is 1T-TaSe₂, which belongs to transition metal dichalcogenides, a wide family of 2D layered materials with formula unit MX₂, where M is a transition metal and X is a chalcogen. The Commensurate Charge Density Wave (CCDW) phase of 1T-TaSe₂ is predicted to host several quantum states that range from 1D metal to 3D insulator depending on the lateral stacking of the layers. By means of ARPES with micrometer spatial resolution, we studied the charge-ordered 1T-TaSe₂, revealing the co-existence of metallic and insulating domains. Our investigation clarifies that metallicity is due to a specific lateral sliding of the CCDW layers, while insulating behavior is driven by surface interlayer dimerization.
Una onda di densità di carica (Charge Density Wave, CDW) è una fase a simmetria rotta caratterizzata dalla stabilizzazione a bassa temperatura di una distorsione reticolare periodica (Periodic Lattice Distortion, PLD) attraverso l’apertura di gap energetici nella struttura a bande elettronica, e da una modulazione spaziale periodica della densità elettronica. Fu prevista teoricamente molto prima di qualsiasi osservazione sperimentale da R. E. Peierls. Il modello di Peierls descrive la transizione di fase CDW per una catena metallica unidimensionale (1D) di atomi, ma fallisce quando si considerano sistemi a dimensionalità più elevata. Tuttavia, le CDW sono osservate sperimentalmente in molti materiali: in sistemi quasi-unidimensionali (q1D) come i tricalcogenuri dei metalli di transizione (TMT), il Blue Bronze e i sali di Krogmann; ma anche in materiali bidimensionali (2D) come i dicalcogenuri dei metalli di transizione (TMD), i superconduttori ad alta temperatura (cuprati) e i metalli Kagome. Molti dei sistemi q1D possono essere compresi nell’ambito del modello unidimensionale di Peierls, mentre le CDW in 2D mettono in discussione questo semplice quadro e richiedono spiegazioni teoriche diverse. In generale, si concorda sul fatto che sia necessario un forte accoppiamento elettrone-fonone dipendente dal vettore d'onda elettronico per stabilizzare le fasi CDW, ma la loro origine è ancora ampiamente discussa. Questa delicata relazione tra elettroni e reticolo è, in definitiva, ciò che ha affascinato gli scienziati per oltre cinquant’anni. In questa tesi presento la nostra indagine della fase CDW di due materiali con diversa dimensionalità: ZrTe₃, un TMT con proprietà q1D, e 1T-TaSe₂, un TMD con carattere 2D; utilizzando principalmente la spettroscopia di fotoemissione. La spettroscopia di fotoemissione risolta in angolo (Angle-Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy, ARPES) è una tecnica molto potente: illuminando il campione con luce ultravioletta e misurando l’energia e l’angolo di emissione degli elettroni fotoemessi, ARPES consente di determinare la struttura elettronica del materiale con risoluzione in energia e vettore d'onda, rivelandone l’evoluzione attraverso la transizione di fase CDW. La ARPES risolta nel tempo (time-resolved ARPES, trARPES) permette inoltre di investigare la dinamica elettronica e aiuta a separare nel dominio temporale i diversi gradi di libertà coinvolti nella transizione di fase. La tecnica trARPES sfrutta il cosiddetto schema pump-probe, in cui vengono impiegati due impulsi laser ultracorti: il pump porta il materiale studiato fuori equilibrio, mentre il probe fotoemette gli elettroni. Variando il ritardo tra i due impulsi, è possibile ricostruire l’intera dinamica di eccitazione e rilassamento del sistema. Abbiamo affiancato alle misure di fotoemissione misure di riflettività ottica a banda larga risolta nel tempo (trOR) e calcoli di teoria del funzionale della densità (Density Functional Theory, DFT). Il primo materiale presentato è ZrTe₃, che appartiene alla famiglia dei tricalcogenuri dei metalli di transizione (TMT), un gruppo di composti che condividono una struttura cristallina simile e proprietà q1D. Essi hanno formula MX₃, con M un metallo di transizione (Ti, Zr, Nb, Hf e Ta) e X un calcogenuro (S, Se e Te). Sono costituiti da catene prismatiche unidimensionali debolmente legate lungo la direzione dell’asse b. ZrTe₃ è un membro peculiare perché la sua superficie di Fermi comprende sia una banda tridimensionale di tipo lacuna centrata in Γ, sia bande q1D ai bordi della zona di Brillouin, collocando questo materiale a metà tra diverse dimensionalità. Studi ARPES hanno mostrato che la fase CDW, che si instaura a 63 K, è compatibile con il modello unidimensionale di Peierls. Tuttavia, alcuni dei cambiamenti osservati nella struttura a bande al variare della temperatura suggeriscono la necessità di una visione più ampia. Abbiamo effettuato misure trARPES, rivelando interessanti caratteristiche dinamiche: (i) uno spostamento transiente indotto dalla fotoeccitazione dell’intera struttura a bande, e (ii) l’eccitazione di oscillazioni coerenti compatibili con due modi fononici A_g. I nostri risultati suggeriscono un forte accoppiamento elettrone-fonone che gioca un ruolo centrale nella formazione della CDW. Supportati da calcoli teorici, possiamo separare i contributi elettronici e reticolari alla transizione CDW. Il secondo materiale presentato è 1T-TaSe₂, che appartiene ai dicalcogenuri dei metalli di transizione (TMD), un’ampia famiglia di materiali stratificati bidimensionali con formula MX₂, dove M è un metallo di transizione e X è un calcogenuro. Si prevede che la fase di onda di densità di carica commensurata (CCDW) di 1T-TaSe₂ ospiti diversi stati quantistici che vanno da un metallo 1D a un isolante 3D a seconda della sovrapposizione laterale degli strati. Mediante ARPES con risoluzione spaziale micrometrica, abbiamo studiato il 1T-TaSe₂ con ordine di carica, rivelando la coesistenza di domini metallici e isolanti. La nostra indagine chiarisce che la metallicità è dovuta a uno specifico scorrimento laterale degli strati CCDW, mentre il comportamento isolante è guidato dalla dimerizzazione inter-strato superficiale.
Charge Density Wave phases across different dimensionalities: an equilibrium and time-resolved ARPES study
MIGNANI, NICCOLÒ
2025/2026
Abstract
A Charge Density Wave (CDW) is a broken-symmetry phase characterized by the low temperature stabilization of a Periodic Lattice Distortion (PLD) through the opening of energy gaps at in the electronic band structure, and by a periodic spatial modulation of the electronic density. It was theoretically predicted long before any experimental observation by R. E. Peierls. The Peierls model describes the CDW phase transition for a one-dimensional (1D) metallic chain of atoms, but fails whenever systems with higher dimensionality are considered. However, CDWs are experimentally observed in many materials: in quasi-one-dimensional systems (q1D) such as Transition Metal Trichalcogenides (TMT), blue bronzes and Krogmann salts; but also in bi-dimensional materials (2D) such as Transition Metal Dichalcogenides (TMD), high temperature superconductors (cuprates) and Kagome metals. Many of the q1D systems can be understood within the one-dimensional Peierls model, while 2D CDWs challenge this simple picture and require different theoretical explanations. In general, there is agreement in saying that a strong momentum dependent electron-phonon coupling is needed to stabilize CDW phases, but their origin is still largely debated. This delicate relation between the electrons and the lattice is ultimately what has fascinated scientists for more than fifty years. In this thesis, I present our investigation of the CDW phase of two materials with different dimensionality: ZrTe₃, a TMT with q1D properties, and 1T-TaSe₂, a TMD with 2D character; mainly employing photoemission spectroscopy. Angle Resolved Photoemission Spectroscopy (ARPES) is a powerful technique: by shining ultraviolet light on the sample and measuring energy and emission angle of the photoemitted electrons, ARPES can detect the electronic structure of the material with energy and momentum resolutions, revealing its evolution across the CDW phase transition. Time-resolved-ARPES (trARPES) also allows to investigate the electronic dynamics and helps separating in the time domain the different degrees of freedom involved in the phase transition. The trARPES technique exploits the so-called pump-probe scheme, where two ultrashort laser pulses are employed: the pump drives the investigated material out of equilibrium, while the probe photoemits electrons. By varying the delay between them, it is possible to reconstruct the full excitation-relaxation dynamics of the system. We complemented photoemission measurements with broadband time-resolved optical reflectivity (trOR) measurements and Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations. The first material presented is ZrTe₃, which belongs to the family of transition metal trichalcogenides, a group of compounds that share a similar crystal structure and q1D properties. They have MX₃ formula units with M being a transition metal (Ti, Zr, Nb, Hf and Ta), and X a chalcogen atom (S, Se and Te). They are made of weakly bound one-dimensional prismatic chains along the b-axis direction. ZrTe₃ is a unique member because its Fermi surface comprises both a 3D hole-like pocket centered at Γ and q1D bands at the Brillouin zone edges, placing this material at the crossroad of different dimensionalities. Extensive ARPES studies have shown that the CDW phase, setting in at 63 K, is compatible with the one-dimensional Peierls model. However, some of the observed changes in the band structure with temperature suggest the need for a larger view. We performed trARPES measurements, revealing interesting dynamical features: i) a transient photo-induced shift of the whole band structure, and (ii) the excitation of coherent oscillations compatible with two A_g phonon modes. Our results suggest a strong electron-phonon coupling that plays a central role in CDW formation. Supported by theoretical calculations, we can disentangle the electronic and lattice contributions to the CDW transition. The second material presented is 1T-TaSe₂, which belongs to transition metal dichalcogenides, a wide family of 2D layered materials with formula unit MX₂, where M is a transition metal and X is a chalcogen. The Commensurate Charge Density Wave (CCDW) phase of 1T-TaSe₂ is predicted to host several quantum states that range from 1D metal to 3D insulator depending on the lateral stacking of the layers. By means of ARPES with micrometer spatial resolution, we studied the charge-ordered 1T-TaSe₂, revealing the co-existence of metallic and insulating domains. Our investigation clarifies that metallicity is due to a specific lateral sliding of the CCDW layers, while insulating behavior is driven by surface interlayer dimerization.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Thesis_PhD_Mignani_Final.pdf
accessibile in internet per tutti a partire dal 24/04/2027
Descrizione: Tesi di dottorato
Dimensione
52.23 MB
Formato
Adobe PDF
|
52.23 MB | Adobe PDF | Visualizza/Apri |
I documenti in POLITesi sono protetti da copyright e tutti i diritti sono riservati, salvo diversa indicazione.
https://hdl.handle.net/10589/256737