Prussian blue analogues with a particular M´-C≡N-M framework are emerging as a promising cathode material for Alkali and Zn-based batteries due to their 3D cavities, enabling fast and reversible ion storage. However, the PBA energy storage mechanism remains elusive, specifically regarding the effects of different types of cations (including monovalent and divalent), and anions (hydrophilic and hydrophobic) on insertion/extraction of cations into the host structure. This thesis presents a comprehensive investigation into the decoupled guest-cation and background-anion mechanisms governing the electrochemical charge-storage and structural degradation pathways of copper hexacyanoferrate (CuHCF) cathodes for aqueous divalent zinc-ion batteries. While open-framework Prussian Blue Analogues (PBAs) offer high theoretical capabilities, their practical deployment has been severely bottlenecked by rapid capacity fade and irreversible phase transitions. By systematically evaluating a three-electrolyte matrix consisting of 0.5 M K2SO4, 0.5 M ZnSO4, and 0.5 M Zn(OTf)2, this research isolates individual multi-ion transport properties, boundary-layer behaviors, and crystal lattice transformations to overcome these limitations. Initial phase and coordination diagnostics demonstrate that full discharge (1.2 V) triggers a rapid potassium-to-zinc ion exchange alongside a selective framework copper dissolution, driven by the high charge density of the incoming Zn2+ cation via competitive coordination at the nitrogen terminus of the cyanide bridges. Although this structural leaching is morphologically latent during early cycles, preserving identical, sharply faceted cuboid crystallites across both zinc systems under scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the background anion acts as a primary thermodynamic gatekeeper at the electrode interface. Operando Raman spectroscopy and potential-resolved Dunn kinetics confirm that the large, hydrophobic triflate anion (CF3SO3−) crowds the Helmholtz layer, effectively dehydrating the interface and enabling a highly reversible, phase-symmetric solid-solution mechanism (b = 0.53). Conversely, the hydrophilic sulphate matrix (SO42−) induces parasitic proton (H+) co-insertion and drives the early nucleation of an insulating, non-stoichiometric zinc hydroxide sulphate byproduct phase. Extended cyclic voltammetry testing over 200 cycles reveals a profound long-term structural divergence that links directly to these early interfacial dynamics. Long-term ex-situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and high-resolution Raman spectroscopy uncover a shared cation-driven lattice distortion and phase transformation. The permanent accumulation of interstitial Zn2+ guests impose severe localized electrostatic strain on the Fe–C≡N–Cu framework, forcing the Cu ions to be preferentially dissolved or substituted by incoming Zn ion guests. This phase transformation serves as a permanent structural bottleneck, locking adjacent active iron centers in an oxidized Fe3+ state and preventing complete reduction during discharge.
Gli analoghi del blu di Prussia con una particolare struttura M´-C≡N-M si stanno affermando come promettenti materiali catodici per batterie alcaline e a base di zinco grazie alle loro cavità tridimensionali, che consentono un accumulo di ioni rapido e reversibile. Tuttavia, il meccanismo di accumulo di energia dei PBA rimane ancora poco chiaro, in particolare per quanto riguarda gli effetti di diversi tipi di cationi (inclusi monovalenti e bivalenti) e anioni (idrofili e idrofobi) sull'inserimento/estrazione di cationi nella struttura ospite. Questa tesi presenta un'indagine completa sui meccanismi disaccoppiati catione ospite e anione di fondo che governano i percorsi di accumulo di carica elettrochimica e di degradazione strutturale dei catodi di esacianoferrato di rame (CuHCF) per batterie acquose agli ioni di zinco bivalenti. Sebbene gli analoghi del blu di Prussia (PBA) a struttura aperta offrano elevate potenzialità teoriche, la loro applicazione pratica è stata fortemente limitata dal rapido decadimento della capacità e dalle transizioni di fase irreversibili. Valutando sistematicamente una matrice a tre elettroliti composta da 0.5 M K2SO4, 0.5 M ZnSO4, and 0.5 M Zn(OTf)2, questa ricerca isola le singole proprietà di trasporto multi-ionico, i comportamenti dello strato limite e le trasformazioni del reticolo cristallino per superare tali limitazioni. Le diagnosi iniziali di fase e coordinazione dimostrano che la scarica completa (1,2 V) innesca un rapido scambio ionico potassio-zinco insieme a una dissoluzione selettiva del rame del reticolo, guidata dall'elevata densità di carica del catione Zn2+ in arrivo tramite coordinazione competitiva al terminale azotato dei ponti cianuro. Sebbene questa lisciviazione strutturale sia morfologicamente latente durante i primi cicli, preservando cristalliti cuboidali identici e nettamente sfaccettati in entrambi i sistemi di zinco al microscopio elettronico a scansione (SEM), l'anione di fondo agisce come un primario guardiano termodinamico all'interfaccia dell'elettrodo. La spettroscopia Raman operando e la cinetica di Dunn risolta in potenziale confermano che il grande anione triflato idrofobico (CF3SO3−) affolla lo strato di Helmholtz, disidratando efficacemente l'interfaccia e consentendo un meccanismo di soluzione solida altamente reversibile e simmetrico in fase (b=0,53). Al contrario, la matrice solfato idrofila (SO42−) induce la co-inserzione parassita di protoni (H+) e guida la nucleazione precoce di una fase di sottoprodotto isolante e non stechiometrico di idrossido di zinco solfato. Test di voltammetria ciclica estesi per oltre 200 cicli rivelano una profonda divergenza strutturale a lungo termine che si collega direttamente a queste dinamiche interfacciali iniziali. La diffrazione di raggi X ex-situ a lungo termine (XRD) e la spettroscopia Raman ad alta risoluzione rivelano una distorsione reticolare e una trasformazione di fase condivise, guidate dai cationi. L'accumulo permanente di ioni Zn2+ interstiziali impone una forte tensione elettrostatica localizzata sulla struttura Fe–C≡N–Cu, costringendo gli ioni Cu a dissolversi o a essere sostituiti preferenzialmente dagli ioni Zn in arrivo. Questa trasformazione di fase funge da collo di bottiglia strutturale permanente, bloccando i centri di ferro attivi adiacenti in uno stato ossidato Fe3+ e impedendo la completa riduzione durante la scarica.
Decoupling electrolyte cation and anion effects in insertion/extraction mechanisms in KCuHCF
Dabir, Mohammad Parham
2025/2026
Abstract
Prussian blue analogues with a particular M´-C≡N-M framework are emerging as a promising cathode material for Alkali and Zn-based batteries due to their 3D cavities, enabling fast and reversible ion storage. However, the PBA energy storage mechanism remains elusive, specifically regarding the effects of different types of cations (including monovalent and divalent), and anions (hydrophilic and hydrophobic) on insertion/extraction of cations into the host structure. This thesis presents a comprehensive investigation into the decoupled guest-cation and background-anion mechanisms governing the electrochemical charge-storage and structural degradation pathways of copper hexacyanoferrate (CuHCF) cathodes for aqueous divalent zinc-ion batteries. While open-framework Prussian Blue Analogues (PBAs) offer high theoretical capabilities, their practical deployment has been severely bottlenecked by rapid capacity fade and irreversible phase transitions. By systematically evaluating a three-electrolyte matrix consisting of 0.5 M K2SO4, 0.5 M ZnSO4, and 0.5 M Zn(OTf)2, this research isolates individual multi-ion transport properties, boundary-layer behaviors, and crystal lattice transformations to overcome these limitations. Initial phase and coordination diagnostics demonstrate that full discharge (1.2 V) triggers a rapid potassium-to-zinc ion exchange alongside a selective framework copper dissolution, driven by the high charge density of the incoming Zn2+ cation via competitive coordination at the nitrogen terminus of the cyanide bridges. Although this structural leaching is morphologically latent during early cycles, preserving identical, sharply faceted cuboid crystallites across both zinc systems under scanning electron microscopy (SEM), the background anion acts as a primary thermodynamic gatekeeper at the electrode interface. Operando Raman spectroscopy and potential-resolved Dunn kinetics confirm that the large, hydrophobic triflate anion (CF3SO3−) crowds the Helmholtz layer, effectively dehydrating the interface and enabling a highly reversible, phase-symmetric solid-solution mechanism (b = 0.53). Conversely, the hydrophilic sulphate matrix (SO42−) induces parasitic proton (H+) co-insertion and drives the early nucleation of an insulating, non-stoichiometric zinc hydroxide sulphate byproduct phase. Extended cyclic voltammetry testing over 200 cycles reveals a profound long-term structural divergence that links directly to these early interfacial dynamics. Long-term ex-situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) and high-resolution Raman spectroscopy uncover a shared cation-driven lattice distortion and phase transformation. The permanent accumulation of interstitial Zn2+ guests impose severe localized electrostatic strain on the Fe–C≡N–Cu framework, forcing the Cu ions to be preferentially dissolved or substituted by incoming Zn ion guests. This phase transformation serves as a permanent structural bottleneck, locking adjacent active iron centers in an oxidized Fe3+ state and preventing complete reduction during discharge.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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Dabir-Master thesis -Final version.pdf
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Dabir-Executive_summary.pdf
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Descrizione: Executive summary
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/259658