Petroleum refining is one of the hardest sectors to decarbonise, and most of its emissions come not from the plant but from the fuels it sells. Burned by the end user, the product slate of a reference Rotterdam refinery releases about 94% of its total footprint of close to 70 Mt CO2/yr. These value-chain emissions are Scope 3 in greenhouse-gas accounting, as distinct from direct (Scope 1) and purchased-energy (Scope 2) sources. This thesis asks how the refinery can supply its hydrogen at least cost while decarbonising, and whether converting green methanol into gasoline (methanol-to-gasoline, MTG) can reach these downstream emissions. It builds a techno-economic linear-programming model, written as an editable cost-and-emissions matrix and solved with the open-source HiGHS solver, that minimises the annual cost of hydrogen supply. The refinery’s operation, its hydrogen demand of 192 kt/yr, and a limit of 70% on any single carrier are held fixed, so the model chooses only between imported green ammonia and green methanol, solved for the years 2026, 2030, 2040 and 2050. Across these years the EU emissions-trading carbon price rises from about 74 to 400 EUR/t CO2 while natural- gas and green-carrier prices fall, the grid decarbonises, and the obligation on renewable fuels of non-biological origin (RFNBO) tightens. Emissions are tracked across all three scopes. The central result is that the carbon price, not the renewable-fuel mandate, is what ultimately makes green hydrogen cheapest, and only by 2050: the system then turns about 76% green on cost alone, leaving the mandate redundant. In the earlier years the price is too low for green to win, so the mandate is what brings it in, buying time the price alone would not yet justify. Across every case the model retrofits existing capacity rather than building new, and the choice between ammonia and methanol turns on reconversion chemistry. MTG reaches the downstream emissions but barely, removing about half a per cent at its 110 kt/yr capacity, while an exergy analysis shows decarbonisation raising the system’s exergy intensity from roughly 194 to 211 MJ/kg, a thermodynamic cost rather than an efficiency gain. The result is a transferable, editable framework for sequencing refinery hydrogen decarbonisation under carbon pricing and renewable-fuel policy.
La raffinazione del petrolio è uno dei settori più difficili da decarbonizzare, e la mag- gior parte delle sue emissioni non proviene dall’impianto ma dai combustibili che vende. Bruciato dall’utente finale, il paniere di prodotti di una raffineria di riferimento di Rot- terdam rilascia circa il 94% della sua impronta totale, prossima ai 70 Mt CO2/anno. Queste emissioni della catena del valore rientrano nello Scope 3 della contabilità dei gas serra, a differenza delle fonti dirette (Scope 1) e di quelle da energia acquistata (Scope 2). Questa tesi si chiede come la raffineria possa fornire il proprio idrogeno al minor costo possibile decarbonizzandosi, e se la conversione del metanolo verde in benzina (methanol- to-gasoline, MTG) possa raggiungere queste emissioni a valle. Costruisce un modello tecnico-economico di programmazione lineare, come una matrice modificabile di costi ed emissioni risolta con il solver open source HiGHS, che minimizza il costo annuo della fornitura di idrogeno. L’esercizio della raffineria, la domanda di idrogeno di 192 kt/anno e un limite del 70% per ogni vettore sono mantenuti fissi; il modello sceglie tra ammoniaca verde e metanolo verde importati per gli anni 2026, 2030, 2040 e 2050, durante i quali il prezzo del carbonio dell’UE sale da circa 74 a 400 EUR/t CO2. Il risultato centrale è che è il prezzo del carbonio, e non l’obbligo sui combustibili rinnovabili, a rendere infine l’idrogeno verde il più conveniente, e solo entro il 2050: a quel punto il sistema diventa il 76% verde per il solo costo, rendendo l’obbligo ridondante, mentre negli anni precedenti, con un prezzo troppo basso, è l’obbligo a introdurlo. In ogni caso il modello riadatta la capacità es- istente anziché costruirne di nuova. L’MTG raggiunge a malapena le emissioni a valle, eliminandone mezzo per cento a 110 kt/anno, e un’analisi exergetica mostra che la de- carbonizzazione aumenta l’intensità exergetica del sistema da circa 194 a 211 MJ/kg, un costo termodinamico più che un guadagno di efficienza. Il risultato è un quadro trasferibile e modificabile per sequenziare la decarbonizzazione dell’idrogeno di raffineria nell’ambito della fissazione del prezzo del carbonio e della politica sui combustibili rinnovabili.
Green hydrogen for refinery decarbonization: comparing carriers under carbon pricing and renewable-fuel policy
WAKIM, REBECCA
2025/2026
Abstract
Petroleum refining is one of the hardest sectors to decarbonise, and most of its emissions come not from the plant but from the fuels it sells. Burned by the end user, the product slate of a reference Rotterdam refinery releases about 94% of its total footprint of close to 70 Mt CO2/yr. These value-chain emissions are Scope 3 in greenhouse-gas accounting, as distinct from direct (Scope 1) and purchased-energy (Scope 2) sources. This thesis asks how the refinery can supply its hydrogen at least cost while decarbonising, and whether converting green methanol into gasoline (methanol-to-gasoline, MTG) can reach these downstream emissions. It builds a techno-economic linear-programming model, written as an editable cost-and-emissions matrix and solved with the open-source HiGHS solver, that minimises the annual cost of hydrogen supply. The refinery’s operation, its hydrogen demand of 192 kt/yr, and a limit of 70% on any single carrier are held fixed, so the model chooses only between imported green ammonia and green methanol, solved for the years 2026, 2030, 2040 and 2050. Across these years the EU emissions-trading carbon price rises from about 74 to 400 EUR/t CO2 while natural- gas and green-carrier prices fall, the grid decarbonises, and the obligation on renewable fuels of non-biological origin (RFNBO) tightens. Emissions are tracked across all three scopes. The central result is that the carbon price, not the renewable-fuel mandate, is what ultimately makes green hydrogen cheapest, and only by 2050: the system then turns about 76% green on cost alone, leaving the mandate redundant. In the earlier years the price is too low for green to win, so the mandate is what brings it in, buying time the price alone would not yet justify. Across every case the model retrofits existing capacity rather than building new, and the choice between ammonia and methanol turns on reconversion chemistry. MTG reaches the downstream emissions but barely, removing about half a per cent at its 110 kt/yr capacity, while an exergy analysis shows decarbonisation raising the system’s exergy intensity from roughly 194 to 211 MJ/kg, a thermodynamic cost rather than an efficiency gain. The result is a transferable, editable framework for sequencing refinery hydrogen decarbonisation under carbon pricing and renewable-fuel policy.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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2026_7_Wakim_Executive Summary.pdf
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2026_7_Wakim_Thesis.pdf
solo utenti autorizzati a partire dal 15/07/2027
Descrizione: Thesis
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https://hdl.handle.net/10589/261274